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. 2025 Nov 21;20(1):104. doi: 10.5334/gh.1493

Figure 4.

Causal associations between circulating biomarkers and cardiovascular diseases. (A) Mendelian randomization (MR) results for HBP, AF, CA, and CHD. (B) MR results for HF, MI, and stroke. Forest plots display the causal effects of circulating biomarkers—including lipids, glycemic markers, liver/kidney function indicators, and additional biochemical traits—on each cardiovascular outcome. Red squares represent OR estimates with 95% confidence intervals. Associations surviving FDR correction are highlighted. The results underscore the critical roles of lipid metabolism, glucose regulation, and hepatic/renal biomarkers in cardiovascular disease risk across different phenotypes

Causal associations between circulating biomarkers and cardiovascular diseases. (A) Mendelian randomization (MR) results for HBP, AF, CA, and CHD. (B) MR results for HF, MI, and stroke. Forest plots display the causal effects of circulating biomarkers—including lipids, glycemic markers, liver/kidney function indicators, and additional biochemical traits—on each cardiovascular outcome. Red squares represent OR estimates with 95% confidence intervals. Associations surviving FDR correction are highlighted. The results underscore the critical roles of lipid metabolism, glucose regulation, and hepatic/renal biomarkers in cardiovascular disease risk across different phenotypes.