. 2025 Nov 25;25:1644. doi: 10.1186/s12909-025-08254-9

Table 1.

Themes from the thematic synthesis (2018–2024; Inline graphic studies)

Theme	Brief description	Indicative prevalence	Illustrative references
Curricular gaps and barriers	Curriculum overload; lack of faculty AI expertise; absence of standardised frameworks; uneven global adoption.	High	Ng et al. [12]; Charow et al. [15]; Grunhut et al. [16]; Pucchio et al. [17]; Mikeladze et al. [18].
Competency framing	Three-tier learner profiles (consumer, translator, developer) guiding depth and assessment.	High	Ng et al. [12]; Laupichler et al. [19]; Russell et al. [20].
Pedagogical approaches	PBL, simulation, case-based learning, design thinking; AI-supported tutoring for self-directed learning.	High	Benedict [21]; Benedict [22]; Hmelo-Silver [23]; Cain and Rajan [24]; Hui et al. [25]; Lin and Chang [26].
Institutional readiness	Faculty development, interprofessional co-teaching, global networks, partnerships.	Moderate–High	Mah et al. [27]; Garas et al. [28]; Liaw et al. [29].
Ethics and governance	Bias/fairness, explainability, accountability, privacy/data governance; embedding ethics longitudinally.	High	Amini et al. [30]; Ferrara [31]; Russell et al. [20]; Lysaght et al. [32]; Murdoch [33].
Continuous professional development (CPD)	Personalised/adaptive learning; critical appraisal; alignment with clinical realities.	Moderate	Lin et al. [34]; Rubin [35]; Zuhair et al. [36]; Lee et al. [37].