The mediating role of parentification in the effect of perceived abuse by adolescents from their parents on self-esteem

Abstract

Background

Parentification is a relational process that leads to role confusion within a family system, where a parent imposes their roles on the child without the child's consent. Because the roles and responsibilities are placed on the child without their permission, this situation can be considered a form of emotional abuse. In the literature, the effects of parentification on self-esteem are still debated, with findings suggesting both positive and negative outcomes.

Objective

The aim of this study is to determine whether parentification has a mediating role in the effect of emotional abuse perceived by adolescents from their parents on self-esteem.

Participants and setting

The sample consisted of 702 adolescents aged 14–18 living in Adapazarı, Sakarya.

Methods

The Adolescent Parentification Form, the Perceived Emotional Abuse from Mother and Father Scale, and the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale were used in the study. A three-step hierarchical linear regression analysis was conducted using SPSS to examine the effects of emotional abuse and parentification as predictors of self-esteem.

Results

The study revealed that parentification had a statistically significant mediating role in the relationship between the level of emotional abuse perceived from the father and the level of self-esteem.

Conclusions

The current study demonstrated the importance of father involvement in child development. Especially for adolescents, parents are important role models. Therefore, the healthy progression of the adolescent-parent relationship is crucial for the adolescent to develop positive self-esteem.

Introduction

Adolescence is a critical period involving changes not only in biological functions but also in cognitive, social, and emotional aspects. As children enter adolescence, this process becomes challenging not only for their parents but also for themselves, as they struggle to adapt to this new phase [1]. Parents, too, enter a new stage as their children transition into adolescence. During this phase, parents may assign more responsibilities to the adolescent, while at times suggesting that they are not yet fully grown. This can lead to contradictions within the parent and confusion for the adolescent [2]. Adolescents, exposed to various environmental factors during this period, begin to question who they are and who they will become in the future, engaging in a search for identity and self.

An individual's awareness of their physical and psychological characteristics, their beliefs—both positive and negative—about themselves, and their awareness of their emotions and thoughts form their sense of self [3]. Self-esteem is the individual's satisfaction with their own self as a result of their self-assessments [4]. Self-esteem is influenced by many factors, with the family being one of the most significant. As the child enters adolescence, changes occur within the family structure. With this change, the roles and responsibilities of the adolescent also evolve. Parents must recognize this shift and adjust accordingly, transitioning from a parent–child relationship to a parent-young adult relationship. Failing to provide the adolescent with enough responsibility can negatively impact their self-esteem, as can assigning responsibilities beyond their developmental capacity [5].

Thus, when assigning responsibilities to the adolescent, it is beneficial to consider their age and developmental stage. Otherwise, assigning responsibilities beyond their age and developmental level may lead to the adolescent becoming parentified.

Parentification, according to Boszormenyi-Nagy [6], is a distorted relational condition where an individual expects their spouse or child to behave as their parent. In other words, while under normal circumstances a child should expect care and love from their parent, the parent instead expects care and attention from the child. In this situation, the child neglects their own needs and prioritizes the needs of their parent in order to meet those expectations. From the perspective of family systems, it can be said that the boundaries between the child and the parent become blurred, and in some cases, the roles are reversed [7]. According to Akün [8], one of the main tasks of adolescents during this period is to gain independence from their parents. However, parentification prevents this process.

Parentification can manifest in two forms, depending on the nature of the responsibilities imposed on the child: instrumental and emotional. Instrumental parentification refers to the child’s involvement in practical and physical tasks, such as performing household chores, contributing to the family budget, or taking care of younger siblings. In contrast, emotional parentification involves the child engaging in affective roles, such as listening to family members’ problems, attempting to find solutions, or mediating conflicts, which are more closely related to emotional and relational processes [9, 10].

In their study examining the adaptation of adolescent students, it was noted that in emotional parentification, the parent emotionally influences or even manipulates the adolescent. In such cases, the adolescent is unable to make decisions independently and instead makes decisions under the influence of the parent. Jurkovic [11] further redefined parentification as destructive and constructive forms. In constructive parentification, the role shifts expected of the child, aligned with their developmental level and cultural context, can contribute positively to the child’s development. However, it is believed that any role changes imposed on the child that exceed their age and developmental level, and that are beyond the child's desire, may be considered emotional abuse rather than having a constructive impact on the child's development.

According to the World Health Organization (WHO), emotional abuse involves inappropriate verbal or behavioral attitudes by a parent or caregiver, the failure to meet the developmental needs or expectations of the child, and the disruption of all areas of the child's development, particularly social and emotional, due to such circumstances [12]. When looking more closely at both definitions, parallels can be drawn between the structure and process of parentification and the processes of abuse and neglect [13]. According to Cansız [14], there are three types of emotional abuse inflicted on children. The first type involves psychological and mental abuse; the second type refers to abuse affecting one or more of the child’s developmental areas; and the third type involves abuse targeting the child's sense of self, belonging, and abilities. Upon reviewing these definitions, it can be concluded that parentification is also a form of emotional abuse.

During adolescence, a turbulent developmental phase, adolescents undergo significant developmental processes to form their self-perception and face numerous risk factors. The level of parentification experienced during adolescence can impact the adolescent’s developing self-esteem. For example, Stanić and Ajdukovic [15], in their study examining the relationship between emotional parentification and self-esteem, stated that emotional parentification was associated with low self-esteem. Joung and Kim [16], in their study examining the relationship between parentification and self-esteem among adults whose mothers had survived breast cancer during adolescence, found a relationship between parentification experienced in adolescence and low self-esteem in adulthood. Goldner et al. [17], in their study investigating the relationship between mother–daughter separation–individuation problems and parentification, stated that parentification was positively related to separation–individuation problems, which in turn had negative consequences for adolescent girls’ self-system. However, despite these studies examining the negative effects of parentification on self-esteem, there are also studies reporting a positive relationship between self-esteem and parentification. For example, Borchet et al. [18], in their study examining sibling relationships, parentification, and self-esteem, found that parentification was associated with high levels of self-esteem. In another study, Borchet et al. [19], which examined types of parentification, adolescents’ academic achievement, and quality of life, it was found that instrumental parentification was positively associated with adolescents’ academic achievement, with quality of life mediating this relationship. The researchers emphasized the positive effects of this situation on adolescents’ self-esteem. Polomski et al. [20], in their study investigating the relationship between parentification and resilience, found that parentification and resilience were related, defining resilience as the ability to reduce the negative effects of difficulties and to generate positive outcomes under adverse conditions.

A review of the literature revealed studies examining the relationship between parentification and self-esteem, as well as the relationship between emotional abuse and self-esteem. However, no studies were found that addressed all three parameters together. In studies examining parentification, the relationship between parental conflict and adolescents’ depressive symptoms [21], problematic behaviors of adolescents with a parent experiencing mental health problems [22], mental health problems [23], family relationships and social participation [24], interpersonal relationships [25], and the functioning of family systems [26] have been more frequently addressed. Similar to the present study, Burton et al. [27] examined the mediating role of parentification in the relationship between parenting behaviors, depressive symptoms, and well-being. However, although the researchers examined parenting behaviors rather than emotional abuse, they focused only on parent-focused parentification and the perceived benefits of parentification. In the studies in the literature, parentification has been examined more generally in relation to broader concepts such as mental health, depressive symptoms, and problematic behaviors. In addition, in studies on parentification and self-esteem, adults are more frequently preferred as the sample group [16, 18, 28, 29]. However, no study has been found that examines as deeply as the present study the concepts of emotional abuse perceived by adolescents from their parents, parentification, and self-esteem during adolescence. Therefore, this study aims to examine the mediating role of parentification in the effect of perceived emotional abuse by adolescents from their parents on self-esteem.

Current study

Self-esteem is crucial for identity development during adolescence. However, many factors influence the development of self-esteem in adolescents. Family is one of the primary factors affecting self-esteem. If a family acknowledges the adolescent’s individuality during this period and assigns responsibilities appropriate to their age and developmental level, positive self-esteem is more likely to develop. Conversely, when adolescents are given responsibilities beyond their age and developmental capacity, or when they experience emotional neglect, rejection, indifference, or lack of emotional support, it is believed that negative self-esteem may form. The literature contains studies indicating that emotional abuse negatively impacts self-esteem, and that parentification can have both positive and negative effects on self-esteem. However, a review of the relevant literature revealed no studies examining the mediating role of parentification in the relationship between emotional abuse and self-esteem.

In this context, the study seeks to answer the following questions:

1. Is there a significant relationship between the levels of emotional abuse perceived by adolescents from their mother and father, their levels of parentification, and their self-esteem?

2. Do the levels of emotional abuse perceived from the mother and father, as well as the level of parentification, predict the self-esteem of adolescents?

3. Does parentification play a mediating role in the relationship between the emotional abuse perceived by adolescents from their parents and their self-esteem?

Method

Research model

This study aimed to determine the levels of parentification, self-esteem, and perceived emotional abuse among adolescents. The study was designed using a correlational model, which is one of the quantitative research methods. The correlational research model aims to determine whether there are relationships between two or more measurable variables and the extent of these relationships [30].

Population and sample

The population of the study consisted of 14,569 high school students aged 14–18 in the Adapazarı district of Sakarya province. The sample size was determined using Israel’s [31] sample size calculation table, considering a 5% margin of error. Although the sample size required to adequately represent the population was 385, approximately three times more adolescents were reached to account for potential data loss, outlier issues, and other risks. After preliminary data analysis, 702 forms were deemed suitable for evaluation. Consequently, the sample of the study consisted of 702 high school students aged 14–18 attending schools in the Adapazarı district of Sakarya province. The reason for selecting the sample from the Adapazarı district was that, according to the 2022 data of the Sakarya Metropolitan Municipality, Adapazarı is the central district of Sakarya province and, for this reason, is considered to most accurately reflect the cultural diversity within the province. In addition, according to the data of the Sakarya Directorate of National Education and the Sakarya Metropolitan Municipality, Adapazarı is the district that hosts the largest number of high schools in Sakarya province. For these reasons, the sample of the present study was selected from the Adapazarı district [32, 33].

As noted in the relevant literature [15, 34, 35], low socioeconomic status is a risk factor for parentification. According to the family stress model, low socioeconomic status constitutes a source of psychological stress for parents [36]. This situation may consequently lead to conflicts within the family. Even if parents do not directly impose parentification on the child, they may indirectly impose it due to the stress they experience. At the same time, although parents may not make such a request, adolescents, having reached a developmental maturity that enables them to understand the circumstances within the family, may take initiatives to contribute to the family on their own [37]. In their study on material hardships and parentification, Stanic et al. [15] also reported that adolescents recognized their parents’ stress due to material hardships, expressed concerns about the family economy, and decided to support their parents to avoid being an additional burden. Although parents facing material hardships may not deliberately impose parentification roles on their children, adolescents become aware of the situation and, by neglecting their own needs, they seek to support their parents. In light of this information, because low socioeconomic status constitutes a significant risk factor for the emergence of parentification, the sample group in this study consisted of adolescents who may come from lower socioeconomic backgrounds.

The study included adolescents with normal developmental progress, attending schools with low academic performance, and having at least one sibling.

Data collection instruments

In the study, the Adolescent Parentification Short Form, Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale, and Perceived Emotional/Psychological Abuse Scales were used as data collection tools.

Adolescent parentification short form

The Adolescent Parentification Short Form was developed by Karataş, Uzun, and Gündüz [38] to measure the level of parentification among students aged 13–18. The form consists of 29 items and five sub-dimensions: perceived benefits from parentification (0.91), sibling-focused parentification (0.77), perceived unfairness from parentification (0.83), emotional parentification towards the parent (0.78), and instrumental parentification (0.72). The first factor consists of 9 items, the second factor of 6 items, the third factor of 6 items, the fourth factor of 5 items, and the fifth factor of 3 items. The form uses a 5-point Likert scale, with responses ranging from 1 (Strongly Disagree) to 5 (Strongly Agree). As the scores from each sub-dimension increase, it indicates a higher level of that particular sub-dimension. The total score for parentification towards the parent is obtained by summing the items related to the fourth and fifth sub-dimensions. In this study, the internal consistency of the form was found to be 0.84 for the perceived benefits of parentification, 0.68 for sibling-focused parentification, 0.70 for perceived unfairness of parentification, 0.71 for emotional parentification towards the parent, and 0.71 for instrumental parentification towards the parent.

Rosenberg self-esteem scale (RSES)

Rosenberg [39] developed the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSES) to measure self-esteem among adolescents. While the original scale consists of 63 items across 12 subscales, only the self-esteem subscale was used in this study. The RSES is a single-factor, 10-item scale designed to assess an individual's overall evaluation of their self-worth. Responses are scored on a 4-point Likert scale, ranging from "1 (Strongly Agree)" to "4 (Strongly Disagree)," with higher scores indicating higher self-esteem. Çuhadaroğlu [40] adapted the RSES into Turkish, and Yüksel and Metin found the internal consistency of the scale to be 0.89 in their study. For the current study, the internal consistency of the scale was determined to be 0.87.

Perceived emotional/psychological abuse scale

The initial short form of the Perceived Emotional Abuse Scale was developed by Erkman and Görkem [41], and a second short form was later created by Kabasakal and Arslan [42] in 2014. The final short form consists of a total of 64 items, with 32 items for the mother and 32 for the father. The scale includes five subdimensions: humiliation, acceptance/respect, severe rejection, covert rejection, and unrealistic expectations. When examining the Cronbach’s alpha reliability coefficients, the mother's form yielded a Cronbach alpha of 0.88, while the father's form yielded a Cronbach alpha of 0.92. The internal consistency coefficients for the father's form were as follows: severe rejection (0.80), covert rejection (0.77), unrealistic expectations (0.73), humiliation (0.89), and acceptance/respect (0.85). For the mother’s form, the internal consistency coefficients were: severe rejection (0.83), covert rejection (0.78), unrealistic expectations (0.73), humiliation (0.91), and acceptance/respect (0.86). These findings indicate that both the 32-item forms for the mother and father have a high level of reliability. The Perceived Emotional Abuse Scale (PEAS) is a 4-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (Almost Never) to 4 (Almost Always). The internal consistency for the mother’s form in this study was 0.83, and for the father’s form, it was 0.82.

Data collection process

Before starting the data collection process, the researchers applied for the Senate Ethics Committee of …… University. After obtaining the ethical approval dated 09.08.2023 and numbered E-53286536–302.08–00003007616, an application was submitted to the Sakarya Provincial Directorate of National Education in November 2023. The necessary permissions for the study were also obtained from the Sakarya Provincial Directorate of National Education. Based on the student placement list published by the Ministry of National Education in 2022, five schools that were not included in this list were selected. Five schools with low academic achievement in the Adapazarı district of Sakarya were chosen and the data collection phase was initiated.

The researcher visited the selected schools and, in cooperation with the relevant administrative staff, randomly selected classes from each high school grade level, ensuring that at least one class from each grade level was included in the study. In order to ensure the reliability of the study, the researcher visited each class accompanied by the school administrative staff. The researcher, who visited each class, informed the adolescents about the purpose of the study. Within the scope of the information provided, it was explained to the adolescents that the information they would provide in the forms would not be used on any platform other than this study, that they could withdraw from the study at any time together with all the information they had given, and that the study consisted entirely of voluntary participants.

Since the participants were under the age of 18, it was necessary to obtain parental consent before participating in the study. For this purpose, before the forms to be completed by the adolescents were distributed, consent forms to be delivered to their parents were handed out. One week later, the researcher, again together with the school administrative staff, revisited the classes visited the previous week and distributed the questionnaire forms containing the scales to be used in the study to the adolescents who returned the consent form signed by their parents, that is, those whose parents allowed them to participate in the study.

The researcher carefully explained to the adolescents the form containing the scales, and in the same way explained that the information they would provide in the forms would not be used on any platform other than this study, that they could withdraw from the study at any time together with all the information they had given, that the study consisted entirely of voluntary participants, and answered the questions of the adolescents who had any. In order to ensure confidentiality in the research forms, no information related to the identity of the adolescents was included. The forms were coded anonymously.

Since the majority of the students in the visited classes agreed to participate in the study, the questionnaires were administered in the classroom environment. While the adolescents were filling out the form, the researcher stayed in the classroom in order to answer any questions the adolescents might have. A quiet and comfortable environment was provided for the adolescents to complete the forms in the classroom. The entire procedure lasted for one class period (approximately 40 min). Adolescents who completed the form returned it to the researcher. In order to standardize the process, the same explanations were given, the same environment was provided, and the same duration was allowed in other schools as well.

Data analysis

In the data analysis, a three-step hierarchical linear regression and correlation analyses were performed using the SPSS program to examine the effects of emotional abuse and parentification as predictors of self-esteem. In the first step, the model included the Perceived Emotional Abuse Scale—Form A (mother). In the second step, the Perceived Emotional Abuse Scale—Form B (father) was added, and in the final step, the Adolescent Parentification Short Form was included.

To investigate the mediating role of parentification in the relationship between perceived emotional abuse from parents and adolescents' self-esteem, a path analysis was conducted using the AMOS 24 software package. The model's parameters were estimated using the Maximum Likelihood (ML) method, which is robust and widely used for structural equation models.

The primary statistical test for the mediation hypothesis was the bootstrapping procedure, as recommended by Preacher and Hayes [43]. This non-parametric resampling method provides a more powerful and accurate test of indirect effects compared to traditional methods like the Sobel test, as it does not assume a normal distribution of the sampling distribution of the indirect effect. A total of 5,000 bootstrap samples were generated from the original dataset. The significance of the indirect (mediating) effect was determined by examining the 95% bias-corrected (BC) confidence intervals. An indirect effect is considered statistically significant if its corresponding 95% confidence interval does not contain zero. This approach allows for a rigorous assessment of both the direct paths in the model and the crucial indirect path representing the mediation effect. The detailed results of the direct and indirect effects, including standardized coefficients (β), standard errors (SE), and 95% bias-corrected confidence intervals, are presented in Table 3.

Table 3.

Standardized coefficients, standard errors, and 95% confidence ıntervals for the path model

Path	β	SE	95% CI [LL]	95% CI [UL]	p
Direct Effects
Emotional Abuse—Mother—> Parentification	.115	.069	-.035	.248	.131
Emotional Abuse—Father—> Parentification	.250	.059	.132	.366	.001
Emotional Abuse—Mother—> Self-Esteem	-.051	.055	-.154	.055	.352
Emotional Abuse—Father—> Self-Esteem	-.117	.051	-.215	-.015	.028
Parentification—> Self-Esteem	-.130	.054	-.235	-.030	.007
Indirect Effects
Mother Abuse—> Parentification—> Self-Esteem	-.015	.012	-.048	.002	.068
Father Abuse—> Parentification—> Self-Esteem	-.033	.017	-.072	-.009	.008

Ethics approval and consent to participate

As the participants were under the age of 16, the necessary permissions were obtained through a parental consent form indicating that their parents or legal guardians had granted permission for their participation in the study.

Results

The Cronbach alpha internal consistency coefficients calculated for the sub-dimensions of the scale were 0.91 for perceived benefit from parentification, 0.77 for sibling-focused parentification, 0.83 for perceived unfairness from parentification, 0.78 for emotional parentification, and 0.72 for instrumental parentification. The results show that the five-factor Parentification Scale -Adolescent Form can be used as a valid and reliable measurement tool in studies to determine the level of parentification of high school students in Turkey.

The relationship between POPMIFA mother and father forms, parentification scale, and RSES Scores

As Table 1 shows, there was a significant and positive correlation between the POPMIFA-M and POPMIFA-F (r = 0.67, p < 0.01), and the subscales of the POPMIFA-F such as Humiliation (r = 0.57, p < 0.01), Acceptance/Respect (r = 0.48, p < 0.01), Severe Rejection (r = 0.50, p < 0.01), Hidden Rejection (r = 0.45, p < 0.01), Unrealistic Expectations (r =. 57, p < 0.01), Perceived Unfairness from Parentification (r = 0.41, p < 0.01), Sibling-Focused Parentification (r = 0.19, p < 0.01) and Instrumental Parentification (r = 0.26, p < 0.01). In addition, a negative and statistically significant relationship was found between the POPMIFA-M and the RSES (r = −0.17, p < 0.01).

Table 1.

Pearson Correlation Analysis of the Relationships Between Adolescents’ Perceived Emotional Abuse from Mother and Father (POPMIFA), Parentification, and Self-Esteem (RSES)

Variables	1	2	3	4	5	6	7
1. POPMIFA- M	-
2. POPMIFA-F	.67**	-
3. Perceived Benefit from Parentification	.00	.08**	-
4. Perceived Unfairness from Parentification	.41**	.45**	.03	-
5. Sibling-Focused Parentification	.19**	.20**	.43**	.32**	-
6. Emotional Parentification	.02	.04	.53**	.15**	.36**	-
7. Instrumental Parentification	.26**	.26**	.37**	.44**	.40**	.30**	-
8. RSES	-.17**	-.19**	-.08*	-.15**	-.05	-.11**	-.17**

^**p < 0.01; ^*p< 0.05; POPMIFA-M: Perception of Psychological Maltreatment Inventory -Mother Form, POPMIFA-F: Perception of Psychological Maltreatment Inventory-Mother Form

There was a significant and positive relationship between POPMIFA-M Humiliation and POPMIFA-F (r = 0.57, p < 0.01) and POPMIFA-F subscales Humiliation (r = 0.62, p < 0.01), Acceptance/Respect (r = 0.30, p < 0.01), Severe Rejection (r = 0.46, p < 0.01), Hidden Rejection (r = 0.33, p < 0.01), Unrealistic Expectations (r = 0.45, p < 0. 01), Perceived Unfairness from Parentification (r = 0.36, p < 0.01), Sibling-Focused Parentification (r = 0.15, p < 0.01), and Instrumental Parentification (r = 0.21, p < 0.01). In addition, a negative and statistically significant relationship was found between POPMIFA-M Humiliation and RSES (r = −0.14, p < 0.01).

There was a significant and positive relationship between POPMIFA-M Acceptance/Respect and POPMIFA-F (r = 0.46, p < 0.01) and its subscales Humiliation (r = 0.27, p < 0.01), Acceptance/Respect (r = 0.69, p < 0.01), Severe Rejection (r = 0.22, p < 0.01), Hidden Rejection (r = 0.18, p < 0.01), Unrealistic Expectations (r = 0.28, p < 0. 01) and Perceived Unfairness from Parenting (r = 0.25, p < 0.01), Sibling-Focused Parentification (r = 0.10, p < 0.01), Instrumental Parentification (r = 0.16, p < 0.01). In addition, a negative and statistically significant relationship was found between POPMIFA-M Acceptance/Respect and RSES (r = −0.10, p < 0.01).

There was a positive and significant relationship between POPMIFA-M Severe Rejection and POPMIFA-F (r = 0.53, p < 0.01) and its subscales Humiliation (r = 0.50, p < 0.01), Acceptance/Respect (r = 0.20, p < 0.01), Severe Rejection (r = 0.67, p < 0.01), Hidden Rejection (r = 0.30, p < 0.01), Unrealistic Expectations (r = 0.44, p < 0. 01) and Perceived Unfairness from Parentification (r = 0.29, p < 0.01), Sibling-Focused Parentification (r = 0.19, p < 0.01), and Instrumental Parentification (r = 0.20, p < 0.01). In addition, a negative and statistically significant relationship was found between POPMIFA-M Severe Rejection and RSES (r = −0.10, p < 0.01).

There was a positive and significant relationship between POPMIFA-M Hidden Rejection and POPMIFA-F (r = 0.47, p < 0.01) and its subscales Humiliation (r = 0.33, p < 0.01), Acceptance/Respect (r = 0.24, p < 0.01), Severe Rejection (r = 0.28, p < 0.01), Hidden Rejection (r = 0.71, p < 0.01), Unrealistic Expectations (r = 0.39, p < 0. 01) and Perceived Unfairness from Parenting (r = 0.28, p < 0.01), Sibling-Focused Parentification (r = 0.13, p < 0.01), Instrumental Parentification (r = 0.19, p < 0.01). In addition, a negative and statistically significant relationship was found between POPMIFA-M Hidden Rejection and RSES (r = −0.08, p < 0.05).

There was a positive and significant relationship between POPMIFA-M Unrealistic Expectations and POPMIFA-F (r = 0.55, p < 0.01) and its subscales Humiliation (r = 0.43, p < 0.01), Acceptance/Respect (r = 0.29, p < 0.01), Severe Rejection (r = 0.37, p < 0.01), Hidden Rejection (r = 0.38, p < 0.01), Unrealistic Expectations (r = 0.66, p < 0.01) and Perceived Benefit from Parentification (r = 0.08, p < 0.05), Perceived Unfairness from Parentification (r = 0.36, p < 0.01), Sibling-Focused Parentification (r = 0.16, p < 0.01), and Instrumental Parentification (r = 0.24, p < 0.01). In addition, a negative and statistically significant relationship was found between POPMIFA-M Unrealistic Expectations and RSES (r = −0.20, p < 0.01).

A positive and statistically significant relationship was found between the mean scores of POPMIFA-F and Perceived Benefit from Parentification (r = 0.08, p < 0.05), Perceived Unfairness from Parentification (r = 0.45, p < 0.01), Sibling-Focused Parentification (r = 0.20, p < 0.01), Instrumental Parentification (r = 0.26, p < 0.01). In addition, a negative and statistically significant relationship was found between POPMIFA-F and RSES (r = −0.19, p < 0.01).

A positive and statistically significant relationship was found between POPMIFA-F Humiliation and Perceived Benefit from Parentification (r = 0.10, p < 0.05), Perceived Unfairness from Parentification (r = 0.42, p < 0.01), Sibling-Focused Parentification (r = 0.20, p < 0.01), Instrumental Parentification (r = 0.21, p < 0.01). In addition, a negative and statistically significant relationship was found between POPMIFA-F Humiliation and RSES (r = −0.16, p < 0.01).

A positive and statistically significant relationship was found between POPMIFA-F Acceptance/Respect and Perceived Unfairness from Parentification (r = 0.28, p < 0.01), Sibling-Focused Parentification (r = 0.08, p < 0.05), Instrumental Parentification (r = 0.16, p < 0.01). In addition, a negative and statistically significant relationship was found between POPMIFA-F Acceptance/Respect and RSES (r = −0.12, p < 0.01).

POPMIFA-F Severe Rejection was positively and statistically significantly correlated with Perceived Benefit from Parentification (r = 0.10, p < 0.05), Perceived Unfairness from Parentification (r = 0.31, p < 0.01), Sibling-Focused Parentification (r = 0.20, p < 0.01), Instrumental Parentification (r = 0.20, p < 0.01). In addition, a negative and statistically significant relationship was found between POPMIFA-F Severe Rejection and RSES (r = −0.12, p < 0.01).

A positive and statistically significant relationship was found between POPMIFA-F Hidden Rejection and Perceived Unfairness from Parentification (r = 0.33, p < 0.01), Sibling-Focused Parentification (r = 0.14, p < 0.01), and Instrumental Parentification (r = 0.20, p < 0.01). In addition, a negative and statistically significant relationship was found between POPMIFA-F Hidden Rejection and RSES (r = −0.13, p < 0.01).

A positive and statistically significant relationship was found between POPMIFA-F Unrealistic Expectations and Perceived Unfairness from Parentification (r = 0.37, p < 0.01), Sibling-Focused Parentification (r = 0.17, p < 0.01), and Instrumental Parentification (r = 0.23, p < 0.01). In addition, a negative and statistically significant relationship was found between POPMIFA-F Unrealistic Expectations and RSES (r = −0.21, p < 0.01).

A negative and statistically significant relationship was found between RSES and Perceived Benefit from Parentification (r = −0.08, p < 0.05), Perceived Unfairness from Parentification (r = −0.15, p < 0.01), Emotional Parentification (r = −0.11, p < 0.01), Instrumental Parentification (r = −0.17, p < 0.01).

Parentification and emotional abuse as predictors of self-esteem

A three-step hierarchical linear regression analysis was conducted to examine the relationships between emotional abuse and parentification as predictors of self-esteem.

In the first step, POPMIFA-M was included in the model. This model was found to be statistically significant [F (1, 697) = 19.89, p < 0.001], and 3% of the variance in the RSES variable was explained by the POPMIFA-M variable (ΔR² = 0.03). In the second step, POPMIFA-F was added to the model. Similarly, this model was also found statistically significant [F (1, 696) = 8.81, p = 0.003]. This model showed that adding POPMIFA-F means scores explained 1.21% more of the RSES variable. Finally, Parentification Scale subscales were added to the model, and this model was found statistically significant [F (5, 691) = 3.70, p = 0.003]. This model showed that adding Perceived Benefit from Parentification, Perceived Unfairness from Parentification, Sibling-Focused Parentification, Emotional Parentification, and Instrumental Parentification explained an additional 2.5% of the variance in the RSES variable.

When the final model was examined, POPMIFA-F [B = −0.02, t(691) = −2.42, p = 0.016], Emotional Parenting [B = −0.05, t(691) = −2.01, p = 0.044] and Instrumental Parenting [B = −0.10, t(691) = −2.46, p = 0.014] predicted the RSES variable at a statistically significant level. As a result, the variables added to the model explain 7% of the variance in the RSES variable. The results for each regression model are presented in Table 2.

Table 2.

Parentification and emotional abuse as predictors of self-esteem

	B	SE	β	t	p	95.00% GA
Step 1
(Constant)	23.78	0.38	0.00	63.12	<.001	[23.04, 24.52]
POPMIFA-M	−0.03	0.006	−0.17	−4.46	<.001	[−0.04, −0.02]
Step 2
(Constant)	24.25	0.41	0.00	59.68	<.001	[23.45, 25.04]
POPMIFA-M	−0.01	0.008	−0.07	−1.31	.189	[−0.03, 0.01]
POPMIFA-F	−0.02	0.008	−0.15	−2.97	.003	[−0.04, −0.008]
Step 3
(Constant)	24.99	0.53	0.00	47.03	<.001	[23.94, 26.03]
POPMIFA-M	−0.009	0.008	−0.05	−1.03	.304	[−0.02, 0.008]
POPMIFA-F	−0.02	0.008	−0.13	−2.42	.016	[−0.04, −0.004]
Perceived Benefit from Parentification	−0.01	0.02	−0.01	−0.31	.760	[−0.04, 0.03]
Perceived Unfairness from Parentification	−0.02	0.02	−0.03	−0.74	.458	[−0.07, 0.03]
Sibling-Focused Parentification	0.05	0.02	0.08	1.88	.060	[−0.002, 0.09]
Emotional Parentification	−0.05	0.03	−0.09	−2.01	.044	[−0.10, −0.001]
Instrumental Parentification	−0.10	0.04	−0.11	−2.46	.014	[−0.17, −0.02]

For the first model: F (1, 697) = 19.89, p <.001, ΔR² =.03; For the second model: F (1, 696) = 8.81, p <.005, ΔR² =.01, For the third model: F (5, 691) = 3.70, p <.005, ΔR² =.03

POPMIFA-M Perception of Psychological Maltreatment Inventory -Mother Form, POPMIFA-F Perception of Psychological Maltreatment Inventory-Mother Form

The mediating role of parentification in the relationship between emotional abuse perceived by adolescents from their parents and self-esteem

To evaluate whether parentification mediates the relationship between perceived emotional abuse from parents and self-esteem, a structural equation model was tested using AMOS 24 software. The Maximum Likelihood method was employed for parameter estimation, and the statistical significance of the indirect effects was assessed using the bootstrap resampling method (with 5,000 samples, Bias-Corrected).

The analysis of direct effects indicated that perceived emotional abuse from the father was a significant positive predictor of parentification (β = 0.25, p = 0.001) and a significant negative predictor of self-esteem (β = −0.12, p = 0.016). Furthermore, parentification significantly predicted lower self-esteem (β = −0.13, p = 0.015). In contrast, perceived emotional abuse from the mother did not have a statistically significant direct effect on either parentification (β = 0.12, p = 0.119) or self-esteem (β = −0.05, p = 0.378).

The bootstrap analysis for indirect effects revealed that parentification significantly mediated the relationship between perceived emotional abuse from the father and self-esteem. The standardized indirect effect was statistically significant (β = −0.033, SE = 0.017, p = 0.008). Conversely, the indirect effect of perceived emotional abuse from the mother on self-esteem via parentification was not significant (β = −0.015, SE = 0.012, p = 0.068). These results suggest that higher levels of emotional abuse perceived from a father are associated with increased parentification, which in turn is related to lower levels of self-esteem. The full results of the path analysis are presented in Table 3 and in Fig. 1.

Fig.1. The mediating role of parentification in the relationship between emotional abuse perceived by adolescents from their parents and self-esteem

Discussion

The aim of this study was to investigate whether parentification plays a mediating role in the relationship between emotional abuse perceived by adolescents from their parents and their self-esteem. The study was conducted with adolescents aged 14–18 who were continuing their high school education. In line with this aim, the relationship between emotional abuse perceived from the mother and father, parentification, and self-esteem in adolescents was first examined. Second, a three-step hierarchical linear regression analysis was conducted to explore the effects of emotional abuse and parentification as predictors of adolescents' self-esteem. Finally, the mediating role of parentification in the relationship between emotional abuse and self-esteem was evaluated.

When reviewing the relevant literature, although there are studies examining the relationship between emotional abuse and self-esteem, no research specifically focuses on the mediating role of parentification in this relationship.

Regarding the first objective, a positive and significant relationship was found between emotional abuse perceived from the mother (POPMIFA- M) and emotional abuse perceived from the father (POPMIFA-F) (r = 0.67, p < 0.01).

This result indicates that as the level of emotional abuse perceived from the mother increases, the level of emotional abuse perceived from the father also increases. According to the 2010 UNICEF study on Child Abuse and Domestic Violence in Turkey, the prevalence of emotional abuse is 51% [44]. Given that emotional neglect and abuse are more difficult and slower to detect compared to other types of abuse, the actual number of emotional abuse cases may be higher [45]. This could explain the correlation between the levels of emotional abuse perceived by adolescents from both their mother and father.

When examining the relationship between emotional abuse perceived from mothers and parentification, a statistically significant positive correlation was found between emotional abuse and the subdimensions of perceived unfairness of parentification (r = 0.41, p < 0.01), sibling-focused parentification (r = 0.19, p < 0.01), and instrumental parentification towards the parent (r = 0.26, p < 0.01). Similarly, when the emotional abuse perceived from fathers and parentification were analyzed, significant positive correlations were found between the POPMIFA-F (Father) scores and perceived benefits of parentification (r = 0.08, p < 0.05), perceived unfairness of parentification (r = 0.45, p < 0.01), sibling-focused parentification (r = 0.20, p < 0.01), and instrumental parentification towards the parent (r = 0.26, p < 0.01).

According to these findings, it can be said that parentification and the emotional abuse that adolescents perceive from their parents are related. Burton et al. [46] linked this to behaviors in both definitions, stating that in both cases, the parent fails to provide a suitable environment for the child's development, neglects their own roles and responsibilities, and deprives the child emotionally, psychologically, and physically. Therefore, it can be argued that parentification is a form of emotional abuse. Thus, the relationship between the subdimensions of the parentification scale and the emotional abuse scales is quite meaningful.

Furthermore, the sample group of the study consisted of students attending low-performing schools. Given the parent profile at these schools, it is not surprising to find a co-occurrence of emotional abuse and parentification. When examining the relationship between emotional abuse perceived from mothers and self-esteem, a significant negative correlation was found between POPMIFA-M (Mother) and RSES (r = −0.17, p < 0.01).

When examining the relationship between the level of emotional abuse perceived by adolescents from their fathers and their self-esteem, a significant negative correlation was found between POPMIFA-F (Father) and RSES (r = −0.19, p < 0.01). According to Yavuz [47], adolescents who have experienced emotional abuse are more likely to feel worthless, develop dependent personalities, and exhibit tendencies toward introversion, tension, and anxiety. Based on this example, it can be said that, as reflected in the findings of this study, emotional abuse is associated with negative emotions and situations in adolescents, which in turn negatively impacts their self-esteem.

The literature also shows parallel findings regarding the relationship between emotional abuse and self-esteem [48, 49]. When the relationship between parentification and self-esteem was examined, significant negative correlations were found between RSES and the following subdimensions: perceived benefits of parentification (r = −0.08, p < 0.05), perceived unfairness of parentification (r = −0.15, p < 0.01), emotional parentification (r = −0.11, p < 0.01), and instrumental parentification (r = −0.17, p < 0.01).

According to Wells et al. [50], unrealistic parental expectations—i.e., parentification—can negatively affect the child's sense of self. In their study, Nuttall et al. [51] found that mothers who had experienced abuse and parentification reported that their self-esteem was negatively affected by their parentification experiences when examining the mother–child relationship.

Although the sample group in this study differs from that of the current research, many of the variables examined are the same. This study supports the findings of the current research. Bean et al. [52], in their study that investigated the relationship between parental support and self-esteem, found that as parental support increased, so did adolescents' self-esteem. A supportive parent leaves little to no room for parentification, which aligns with and supports the findings of the current study. However, some other studies exploring the relationship between parentification and self-esteem have found that as parentification increased, self-esteem also increased [53, 54]. It is believed that the different variables and sample groups in these studies may account for the differing results compared to the current research.

The sample group in this study consisted of adolescents from socioeconomically and socioculturally disadvantaged areas, and the study was conducted alongside the variable of emotional abuse. For example, in the study by Borchet et al. [55], it was found that parentification increased self-esteem. However, sibling relationships were taken as a variable in those studies, and the quality of sibling relationships was argued to have a constructive effect on both parentification and self-esteem. Therefore, differences between the studies are quite likely.

Additionally, in situations where adolescents are forced to take on responsibilities in the family for various reasons, after fulfilling these responsibilities, they may develop a false sense of self-esteem when comparing themselves to their peers, perceiving themselves as more capable [56]. Jurkovic [57] also suggests that the outcomes of parentification in a child's life experience vary depending on how the child feels about the experience and how they interpret and make sense of it.

Regarding the second aim of the study, when examining the effects of emotional abuse and parentification as predictors of adolescents' self-esteem, the results of the three-step hierarchical linear regression analysis indicated that the levels of emotional abuse and parentification perceived by adolescents from their mothers and fathers explained 7% of the variance in their self-esteem. Although this proportion appears to be low, even small effect sizes are considered meaningful in the social sciences [58] and may provide clinically important implications. One of the reasons why this proportion is low is that self-esteem is a multidimensional construct [59]. Self-esteem is influenced not only by parental behaviors but also by one’s own psychological characteristics, as well as many factors such as culture and environment [60]. In addition, emotional abuse is not as clearly recognized in society as physical abuse [61]. For example, in Cansız’s [14] study, 74% of the mothers in the sample group were not aware that they were emotionally abusing their children. The same situation applies to parentification. In more collectivist cultures parentification is conserdered not as a developmental risk factor but as a responsibility for children [62]. In both cases, those who exhibit these behaviors as well as those who are exposed to them may have internalized these processes as ordinary. As a result, these situations may have led to the low variance. However, although the proportion is small, it may provide clinically and practically significant implications. When a risk factor is identified in development, it may progress cumulatively and, when combined with other risk factors, may lead to quite serious outcomes in adolescent development. Therefore, although this proportion is low, it represents a clinically and practically meaningful result.

According to Van Egmond et al. [63], parental love, attention, and warmth are significant predictors of adolescents developing positive self-esteem. Supporting this view, studies on self-esteem have shown that the lack of parental warmth, or in other words, the emotional neglect or lack of support from parents, constitutes a risk factor for self-esteem and is a form of emotional abuse [64, 65].

Finally, according to the results of the mediation analysis conducted to examine whether parentification plays a mediating role in the relationship between emotional abuse and self-esteem in adolescents, it was found that the parentification variable has a statistically significant mediating role in the relationship between the level of emotional abuse perceived from the father and the level of self-esteem (β = −0.03, SE = 0.02, p = 0.008). Bereket et al. examined parental involvement and adolescent substance use in Ethiopia, and in line with the findings of the present study, they found that paternal involvement reduced adolescents’ substance use and depressive behaviors [66]. Similarly, Zhang et al. [67] in their study conducted in China investigating the relationship between parental involvement and depressive symptoms, found that positive maternal and paternal involvement predicted fewer depressive symptoms in adolescents, with the positive relationship between fathers and male adolescents being particularly associated with fewer depressive symptoms. In another study examining adolescent–parent relationships, it was found that not maternal but paternal negative relationships with adolescents were associated with lower self-esteem and aggressive behaviors among adolescents [68]. While the present study was conducted with a Turkish sample, the other studies were carried out with samples from Ethiopia and China. Considering the common features of these three regions, all three countries have patriarchal cultural structures [66, 67, 69]. Within these structures, the father figure represents not only an authoritarian figure but also one who is desired as a role model and whose guidance is needed. Accordingly, paternal interactions—whether positive or negative—may play a more influential role in adolescent development compared to maternal interactions. Another possible explanation for this difference in mother–father relationships may be that the mother is primarily the main caregiver. Emotional abuse behaviors perceived from the mother may not always be experienced as major conflict but rather as emotional fluctuations. Furthermore, the enmeshed nature of mother–adolescent relationships may sometimes be perceived not as a factor lowering self-esteem but rather as closeness [25]. In addition, within the context of mother–child attachment, the mother not only provides care but also transmits internal working models. The child develops cognitive schemas alongside these models, and the mother plays a significant role in the formation of these schemas [70]. Individuals exposed to emotional abuse may not have healthy internal working models, and thus may fail to make sound judgments in both interpersonal and self-evaluations [71, 72].

According to UNICEF’s [73] Research on Child Abuse and Domestic Violence in Turkey, as also observed in the present study, emotional abuse perceived from the father is a determining factor. The study found that both boys and girls aged 7–14 were more frequently exposed to emotional abuse by their fathers, whereas in the 15–18 age group, boys reported more emotional abuse from their fathers and girls reported more emotional abuse from their mothers. McKinney et al. [74], in their study examining the relationship between late adolescents’ perceived parenting behaviors and their emotional adjustment (anxiety, depression, self-esteem), found results differing from the present study, reporting that maternal, rather than paternal, parenting behaviors were associated with adolescents’ emotional adjustment. However, Babore et al. [75], in their study on early adolescents, showed that both maternal and paternal parenting behaviors and the relationships parents established with their children had positive effects on children’s self-esteem and depression levels. Differences in sample groups may account for the discrepancies between the findings of the present study and those of previous research. Both the relevant literature and the present study emphasize the importance of parental support in the development of adolescents’ self-esteem, while the present study additionally demonstrates the significance of the father–adolescent relationship for adolescent development. As Baskak [76] notes, the more a child’s needs for love, attention, and security are met in their upbringing environment, the more likely they are to develop into a well-adjusted, social, and capable individual in their social relationships and participation in society. Therefore, it is crucial for a child to grow up in an environment free from neglect and abuse, which is essential for them to experience a healthy childhood and become a socially competent adult capable of meeting their own needs.

Limitations and future studies

In this study, five schools in the Adapazarı district of Sakarya province, which were not included in the Ministry of National Education's (MEB) scored admission system due to their low academic performance, were selected. Additionally, there was cultural diversity among the students in these schools (e.g., Syrian, Romani, etc.). Therefore, it can be said that the sample group of the study came from a socioculturally disadvantaged population. Emotional abuse and parentification are two concepts that negatively affect children's development. The examination of these two concepts in a socioculturally disadvantaged sample, selected based on criteria established by the MEB and SEGE (Social, Economic, and Geographical Status), highlights the strengths of this study.

Moreover, while the relationships between emotional abuse and self-esteem, as well as parentification and self-esteem, have been examined in the literature, no prior studies have explored the mediating role of parentification in the relationship between emotional abuse and self-esteem. In this respect, this study holds the distinction of being the first to investigate the mediating role of parentification in the relationship between these variables.

However, the study also has a few limitations. The research was based on self-reported questionnaire data from adolescents aged 14–18. Therefore, the results were derived from the information provided by the students, and this should be taken into consideration when interpreting the findings. This study was conducted using quantitative research methods. Future research employing mixed-method designs could provide a more comprehensive understanding of the topic. The study involved students from five schools in the Adapazarı district that were not part of the scored admission system. In future studies, the number of schools and students could be increased to improve the generalizability of the research findings. The adolescents in the sample were from socioeconomically and socioculturally disadvantaged backgrounds. Including participants from diverse socioeconomic and sociocultural contexts in future studies would enhance the generalizability of the findings.

Conclusion

This study aimed to examine whether parentification plays a mediating role in the relationship between emotional abuse perceived by adolescents from their parents and their self-esteem in adolescents aged 14–18. Emotional abuse is a condition that many parents unknowingly inflict on their children. Parentification, on the other hand, varies across cultures and is sometimes seen as a normal practice imposed on the child without their consent in certain cultures. As mentioned earlier, the definitions of parentification and emotional abuse are closely related, with parentification often being viewed as a form of emotional abuse. Both situations can hinder a child’s development and lead to undesirable outcomes, with self-esteem being one of the aspects negatively affected by these factors.

The findings of this study showed that emotional abuse perceived by adolescents from their mothers and fathers is interrelated. As mentioned, many parents may not be aware that they are emotionally abusing their children. According to Bronfenbrenner's [77] ecological systems theory, individuals are influenced by the environment in which they live. Since parents share the same environment, their behaviors are likely to influence each other. Given that this study was conducted in a socio-culturally disadvantaged area, the correlation between the emotional abuse levels perceived by adolescents from their parents was an expected result.

In addition, studies examined within the scope of the literature have indicated that parentification is also a form of emotional abuse. The findings of this study support this notion, revealing a positive relationship between the levels of emotional abuse perceived by adolescents from their parents and their experiences of parentification. This suggests that as adolescents perceive more emotional abuse from their parents, their experiences of parentification increase.

Emotional abuse is one of the factors believed to negatively affect self-esteem. In this study, the relationship between the level of emotional abuse perceived by adolescents from their parents and their self-esteem was examined. As indicated by the related literature, a negative relationship was found between the level of emotional abuse perceived from parents and self-esteem. Based on these results, the first hypothesis of the study was confirmed, showing that emotional abuse, parentification, and self-esteem are interrelated in adolescents.

Self-esteem has been shown to be influenced by various factors. In line with our second hypothesis, we assumed that parentification and emotional abuse would predict self-esteem. The analysis revealed that emotional abuse and parentification perceived by adolescents from their parents explained 7% of the variance in self-esteem. Although this rate appears to be low, considering the effect sizes in social sciences, it presents significant results. Self-esteem is a multidimensional construct. In addition, parentification and emotional abuse are highly influenced by cultural factors. These reasons are thought to have an impact on the rate being low. At the same time, when this rate combines with other risk factors for adolescent development and creates a cumulative effect, it can lead to serious developmental problems. Therefore, although the rate appears to be low, it can yield meaningful results for clinical implications.

The final hypothesis and objective of this study were to investigate the mediating role of parentification in the relationship between emotional abuse and self-esteem. The findings indicated that parentification plays a statistically significant mediating role in the relationship between emotional abuse perceived from fathers and self-esteem, but not in the relationship between emotional abuse perceived from mothers and self-esteem. This result demonstrates how important father involvement is for child development. In Turkish culture, fathers are not only perceived as authority figures but also serve as role models. Especially during adolescence, while the adolescent is trying to form their own sense of self, the father’s role modeling contributes to this process. For this reason, parentification may have served as a mediating role in the effect of abuse perceived from the father on adolescents’ self-esteem. In this regard, it is necessary to emphasize how important the father–child relationship is for the personality development of the child. Raising fathers’ awareness on this issue will make the father–child relationship healthier.

Abbreviations

WHO

World Health Organization

RSES

Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale

POPMIFA

Perceived Emotional/Psychological Abuse Scale

UNICEF

United Nations Children's Fund

MEB

Ministry of National Education

SEGE

Social, Economic, and Geographical Status

Authors’ contributions

**BÇK:** Conceptualization, Investigation, Resources, Data Curation, Writing—Original Draft, Writing—Review & Editing **HD:** Conceptualization, Methodology, Resources, Writing—Review & Editing, Project administration.

Funding

The authors have no relevant financial or non-financial interests to disclose.

Data availability

The data in this study can be provided by the author if requested.

Declarations

Ethics approval and consent to participate

All procedures involving human participants were conducted in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Declaration of Helsinki and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards. The ethical approval for the study was obtained from the Hacettepe University Senate Ethics Committee. (Approval No: E-53286536–302.08–00003007616).

Consent for publication

Consent for publication was obtained from the participants and their parents.

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.