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. 2025 Nov 17;16:1640980. doi: 10.3389/fmicb.2025.1640980

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Copyright © 2025 Liu, Li, Feng, Liu, Zhu, Zhang, Zhang and Wang.

This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

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Bar chart panels displaying diversity indices for bacteria and fungi across six treatments: SSa, SZa, SLa, SSAFa, SZAFa, and SLAFa. Panel A shows bacterial Shannon index with lower values for SSa. Panel B presents bacterial Chao1 index, with SSa having a distinctly lower value. Panel C depicts fungal Shannon index, also lowest for SSa. Panel D displays fungi Chao1 index, with SSa having the lowest value. Statistical significance is indicated using letters above bars. — Soil pH (A), electrical conductivity (EC) (B), organic matter (OM) (C), organic carbon (OC) (D), total nitrogen (TN) (E), ammonium nitrogen ( ${NH}_{4}^{+}$ -N) (F), total phosphorus (TP) (G), available phosphorus (AP) (H), total potassium (TK) (I), and available potassium (AK) (J) under different crop rotation patterns.