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. 2025 Oct 9;87(12):8434–8442. doi: 10.1097/MS9.0000000000004022

Figure 2.

Figure 2.

Association between long-term proton pump inhibitor (PPI) use and dementia risk across studies and demographics. (A) Forest plot of dementia risk with long-term PPI use by region, showing hazard ratios (HRs) with 95% confidence intervals (CI) from Northus et al (2023, N. America), Gomm et al (2016, Europe), Zheng et al (2022, Asia), Mehta et al (2023, N. America), and Tai et al (2017, Asia). The dashed line represents no effect (HR = 1). (B) Bubble plot of study sample sizes versus HRs for PPI–dementia association, with bubble size proportional to sample size and color indicating region (Northus et al, Gomm et al, Zheng et al, Mehta et al, Tai et al). The dashed line represents no effect (HR = 1). (C) Line graph of dementia risk by duration of PPI use, illustrating HR with 95% CI as a function of cumulative PPI exposure in years. The dashed line represents no effect (HR = 1). (D) Line graph of dementia risk with PPI use across age-groups (Pourhadi et al, 2024), showing incidence rate ratio (IRR) with 95% CI for age-groups 60–69, 70–79, 80–89, and 90+. The dashed line represents no effect (IRR = 1).