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. 2025 Dec 10;8:1720525. doi: 10.3389/fdata.2025.1720525

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Copyright © 2025 Zhu and Long.

This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

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Line graph titled “Robustness to JPEG Compression” showing accuracy percentages across JPEG quality levels. Three lines represent different methods: “Ours” in orange, “Xception” in blue, and “FreqNet” in green. Accuracy decreases as JPEG quality reduces from 100% to 40%, with “Ours” maintaining the highest accuracy and “FreqNet” the lowest. — Robustness under different JPEG compression levels.