Challenge (From Literature)	Relevant Text/Excerpt in WHO Pandemic Agreement	Article Number(s)	Degree of Coverage	Notes/Gap Observations
Lack of independent monitoring and compliance mechanisms	“A compliance mechanism is hereby established under the authority of the Conference of the Parties (COP) to oversee implementation and promote accountability.”	Art. 19–22 (Compliance and Oversight)	Partial	Introduces compliance framework with self-reporting and peer assessments but lacks independent enforcement powers or sanction mechanisms.
Structural vulnerabilities of Least Developed Nations (LDNs)	“Parties shall provide targeted financial and technical assistance to Least Developed Nations to strengthen health systems and expand equitable access to countermeasures.”	Art. 8 (Equity and Support), Art. 15 (Financial and Technical Assistance)	Partial	Explicit reference to LDNs, but mechanisms for funding delivery, monitoring, and representation in COP remain undefined.
Weak core health system capacities and preparedness planning	“Parties shall develop and maintain core public health capacities, including essential services, preparedness planning, and surveillance.”	Art. 6 (Core Capacities)	Full	Clear obligations aligned with IHR core capacities and JEEs, but resource dependence and uneven national implementation persist.
Intellectual property barriers to equitable access	“A Pathogen Access and Benefit-Sharing (PABS) System shall link pathogen data sharing with equitable access to vaccines, diagnostics, and therapeutics.”	Art. 10 (PABS System) + PABS Annex (draft)	Pending	PABS system under negotiation; lacks defined benefit types, allocation rules, and enforceable technology transfer provisions.
Limited operationalization of civil society participation	“Parties shall promote meaningful participation of civil society organizations and communities in pandemic preparedness and response.”	Art. 12 (Preparedness and Multisectoral Engagement)	Partial	Acknowledges CSO role but remains non-binding; lacks procedural guidelines or inclusion guarantees.
Weak institutionalization of simulation and preparedness exercises	“Parties shall conduct regular simulation exercises to test national and international readiness.”	Art. 12 (Preparedness and Simulation Exercises)	Partial	Provisions are aspirational without standardized implementation procedures or reporting obligations.
Insufficient financing and operational guarantees for equity	“Parties shall promote sustainable and predictable financing for preparedness and equitable access to countermeasures.”	Art. 13 (Sustainable Financing), Art. 18 (Cooperation and Support)	Partial	Financing clauses are general; absence of binding targets or time-bound commitments reduces enforceability.
Unclear mechanisms for regional manufacturing and capacity-building	“Parties shall strengthen regional manufacturing capacity for medical countermeasures.”	Art. 18 (Scientific and Technical Cooperation)	Partial	Recognizes need for regional capacity-building but relies on voluntary cooperation; no clear funding or technology-sharing mandates.