. 2025 Nov 23;15:45167. doi: 10.1038/s41598-025-28614-1

Table 3.

First-stage of IV estimation: Effects of ventilation coefficient on air pollution (per IQR increase).

	PM₁	PM_2.5	PM₁₀	NO₂	SO₂	O₃
Ventilation coefficient	− 0. 37*** (− 0. 38, − 0. 36)	− 0. 38*** (− 0. 39, − 0. 37)	− 0. 31*** (− 0. 32, − 0. 30)	− 0. 29*** (− 0. 30, − 0. 28)	− 0. 35*** (− 0. 36, − 0. 34)	− 0. 16*** (− 0. 16, − 0. 15)
F value of first stage	662. 09	820. 49	1219. 29	1161. 53	1114. 6	1105. 05

PM₁

PM_2.5

PM₁₀

NO₂

SO₂

O₃

Ventilation coefficient

− 0. 37***

(− 0. 38, − 0. 36)

− 0. 38***

(− 0. 39, − 0. 37)

− 0. 31***

(− 0. 32, − 0. 30)

− 0. 29***

(− 0. 30, − 0. 28)

− 0. 35***

(− 0. 36, − 0. 34)

− 0. 16***

(− 0. 16, − 0. 15)

F value of first stage

662. 09

820. 49

1219. 29

1161. 53

1114. 6

1105. 05

IQR: interquartile range; PM₁: particulate matter with aerodynamic diameter ≤ 1 µm; PM_2.5: particulate matter with aerodynamic diameter ≤ 2.5 µm; PM₁₀: particulate matter with aerodynamic diameter ≤ 10 µm; NO₂: nitrogen dioxide; SO₂: sulfur dioxide; O₃: ozone.

***p < 0. 001,

**p < 0. 01,

*p < 0. 05. 95% confidence interval in parentheses based on robust standard error. All modes adjusted for sociodemographic characteristics (age, gender, living area, marital status, education level, regional category, family residence) , lifestyle habits and health (smoking status, drink status, cooking fuel use, number of chronic diseases), and meteorological conditions (average temperature, relative humidity).