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. 2026 Jan 4;17:1. doi: 10.1186/s40104-025-01317-3

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© The Author(s) 2026

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver (http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated in a credit line to the data.

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Fig. 6 — Multi-omics integration linking gut microbiota, hepatic metabolites, and host metabolism. A Source-based classification of differential hepatic metabolites (host-derived, microbiota-derived, drug-related, food-related, environmental, and others). B Comparative analysis between differential muscle and liver metabolites. C Correlation network of differential liver metabolites with liver genes. D Correlation network between muscle metabolites and serum immune-antioxidant indices (blue: negative correlation, pink: positive correlation). E Mediation analysis identifying hepatic genes mediating microbiota effects on host immunity and antioxidant capacity (cyan: negative mediation, red: positive mediation)