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. 2026 Jan 4;17:1. doi: 10.1186/s40104-025-01317-3

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© The Author(s) 2026

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver (http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated in a credit line to the data.

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Fig. 7 — Integrated pathways modulated by PFS through the gut-liver-muscle axis. Schematic representation illustrating the integrated signalling and metabolic pathways influenced by Perilla frutescens seed (PFS) supplementation. PFS enhanced microbial butyrate production in the gut. In the liver, PFS promoted hepatic synthesis of PUFAs via upregulation of ELOVL2 and FADS2, and modulated glycerophospholipid metabolism through suppression of PLA2G and LPCAT, resulting in reduced LysoPC(20:4) levels. Enhanced bile acid metabolism was characterised by increased GHDCA and CA, activating bile acid receptor TGR5 signalling. In immune-related pathways, PFS upregulated FcγR-mediated phagocytosis and T-cell receptor (TCR) signalling, while suppressing pro-inflammatory mediators (IL-1β, TNF-α) and enhancing anti-inflammatory cytokines (IL-10, TGF-β). The overall regulation of arachidonic acid metabolism and reinforcement of antioxidant defence collectively contribute to improved immune resilience and metabolic balance along the gut-liver-muscle axis. Red indicates upregulated elements, and blue indicates downregulated elements in response to PFS supplementation. CA: cholic acid; GHDCA: glycohyodeoxycholic acid; PUFAs: polyunsaturated fatty acids