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. 2025 Dec 5;16:746. doi: 10.1038/s41598-025-30236-6

Table 3.

Comparison of representative VIAs and the proposed PCL-VIA in terms of weight, stiffness mechanism, and energy efficiency.

Actuator Mass (kg) Energy (J) Description
AwAS5 1.8 350 Lever-arm VIA with pre-compressed spring.
AwAS-II15 1.1 580 Rotary-spring system with improved energy storage.
MACCEPA 2.02 2.0 300 Variable lever geometry with antagonistic springs.
VSA-II4 2 700 Agonistic-Antagonistic design of springs and actuators
Proposed PCL-VIA 0.86 250–500 Thermal softening of PCL via integrated heaters.