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. 2025 Aug 5;119:105876. doi: 10.1016/j.ebiom.2025.105876

Fig. 1.

Fig. 1

Moderate exercise improves cognition without affecting motor activity or anxiety-like behaviour. (a–c) Diagram of the Activity cage protocol and variables. (a) Total horizontal activity, one-way Kruskall-wallis (Day 1 (H (3, n = 39) = 8.71, p-value = 0.0334); (Day 2 (H (3, n = 39) = 2.01, p-value = 0.57). (b) Total vertical activity, Kruskall-wallis (Day 1 (H (3, n = 39) = 4.59, p-value = 0.204); (Day 2 (H (3, n = 39) = 1.88 p-value = 0.598). (c) Total distance travelled, one-way ANOVA (Day 1, F (1.769), p-value = 0.171), (Day 2, (F (0.587), p-value = 0.628). (d–f) Diagram of the EPM protocol and variables. (d) Time in arms, one-way ANOVA (Open; (F (0.446), p-value = 0.722), Center; (F (2.075), p-value = 0.122), Closed; (F (2.105), p-value = 0.119). (e) Reaching, one-way ANOVA (F (0.564), p-value = 0.643). (f) Total frequency, one-way ANOVA (F (1.033), p-value = 0.39). (g–h) Diagram of the NOR protocol and variables. (g) Discrimination Index. Mixed ANOVA. Group effect (F (3,35) = 17.181, p < 0.05, η2 = 0.344), phase effect (F (2,70) = 34.358, p < 0.05, η2 = 0.387). One-way ANOVA in each phase. (TNG: F (0.74), p-value = 0.532; STM: F (11.6), p-value = 0.00005, η2 = 0.5; LTM: F (10.9), p-value = 0.00006, η2 = 0.48). (h) Total time exploration of both objects. Group differences in each phase, one-way ANOVA and Kruskall-walis. (TNG: H (3, n = 39) = 11.5, p-value = 0.009, STM: F (1.11), p-value = 0.716; LTM: F (0.956), p-value = 0.716). (i–j) Diagram of the NOL protocol and variables. (i) Discrimination Index. Mixed ANOVA. Group effect (F (3,33) = 11.990, p < 0.05, η2 = 0.363), phase effect (F (1,33) = 29.995, p < 0.05, η2 = 0.303). One-way ANOVA in each phase. (TNG: F (0.686), p-value = 0.567; STM: F (18.5), p-value = 0.0000006, η2 = 0.628). (j) Total time exploration of both columns. Group differences in each phase, one-way ANOVA. (TNG: F (3.35), p-value = 0.06; STM: F (2.68), p-value = 0.062). (k) Cognitive Index. One-way ANOVA, (F (34.42), p-value = 1.52e-10, η2 = 0.746). Within-group comparisons, related samples t-test. Results represent the mean ± SEM (n = 10, SED group: n = 10, RUN group; n = 10, RUNtime group; n = 9, RUNvel group). Group comparisons p-value ∗<0.05, ∗∗<0.01, ∗∗∗<0.001. Within-group comparisons p-value +<0.05, ++<0.01, +++<0.001. Ns, not significant; TNG, training; STM, short term memory; LTM, long term memory.