Fig. 2.

Moderate exercise promotes neurogenesis and increases neural precursors and progenitors. (a–c) No significant differences were found in hippocampal volumetric analysis. (b) SGZ area, Kruskal–Wallis test, H (3, n = 40) = 1.19, p-value = 0.755). (c) GCL volume, one-way ANOVA, F (0.25), p-value = 0.861). (d–e) Neural precursor numbers were significantly higher in the RUN group. (d) Image of double IF of SOX2 (red) and GFAP (green); DAPI (blue). (e) Total number of SOX2⁺/GFAP⁺ cells in the SGZ, one-way ANOVA, (F (11.52), p-value = 2.78e-05, η² = 0.519). (f–g) No significant differences were observed in cell proliferation. (f) Image of PH3+ (red) and DAPI (blue). (g) PH3⁺ cells, one-way ANOVA, (F (2.248), p-value = 0.101). (h–k) Exercise affected specific populations of neural progenitors. (h) Image of double IF of DCX (red) and CLR (green); DAPI (blue). (i) DCX⁺/CLR⁻ cells in the GCL, one-way ANOVA, (F (1.375), p-value = 0.265). (j) DCX⁺/CLR⁺ cells in the GCL, one-way ANOVA with White's adjustment, (F (6.104), p-value = 0.002, η² = 0.376). (k) Proportion of DCX populations. (l–m) Strong correlations were found between cognitive performance and neural precursors/progenitors. (l) DCX⁺/CLR⁺ population correlated with the cognitive index (r = 0.56, p-value< 0.001). (m) SOX2⁺/GFAP⁺ population correlated with the cognitive index (r = 0.68, p-value <0.001). (n) Summary of significant Pearson correlations between neurogenic markers and cognitive index. Red boxes represent significant correlations. (o) Overview of studied cell populations and markers. Statistical outliers were removed from the analysis. Within-group comparisons, paired t-test or Wilcoxon test. White scale bars, 20 μm. The results represent the mean ± SEM (n = 10, SED group: n = 10, RUN group; n = 10, RUNtime group; n = 9, RUNvel group). MOL: molecular layer of the DG; SGZ: subgranular zone of the DG; H: hilus. Between-group comparisons p-value ∗<0.05, ∗∗<0.01, ∗∗∗<0.001. Ns, not significant.