Fig. 8.

Schematic illustration of AI-enabled human-machine co-adaptive systems. a Left: Schematic diagram depicting the human-machine joint learning process and the experimental paradigm. Right: Illustration of BCI training with different strategies. Reproduced with permission [148].

Copyright 2025, Springer Nature. b Left: AI copilots use task information to improve BCI performance. Right: CNN-KF architecture. Reproduced with permission [149]. Copyright 2025, Springer Nature. c Left: Experimental paradigm. Middle: Effects of online training on MI and ME robotic finger control. Right: ME and MI tasks using EEG signals filtered with different bandpass settings. Reproduced with permission [150]. Copyright 2025, Springer Nature