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. 2025 Dec 16;6:39. doi: 10.1038/s43856-025-01291-x

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© The Author(s) 2025

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Fig. 6 — a Mean (SD) joint kinematics (angles) waveforms (averaged single and dual task) per footwear condition (n = 26). b Results of 1 D – SPM (corresponding to the waveforms presented in the row a), showing areas of significant differences between footwear comparisons (ML vs CV and ML vs BF for ankle abduction); t-critical is shown by the red dotted lines in each plot, statistical significance was assessed with two-sided paired-samples t-tests with Bonferroni correction. c Boxplots of joint kinematics values at heel strike stratified by footwear and walking condition, dashed line indicate any interaction between footwear and cognition; boxes represent the interquartile range (IQR), horizontal lines indicate the median, whiskers extend to 1.5× the IQR, individual points represent participant data, red asterisk denote outliers. (n = 26). d Results from the mediation analyses presented on the forest plots for the comparison between minimalist shoes and supportive shoes; total effect (with 95% Confidence Intervals) refers to the difference in the AP MoS between footwear conditions; significant mediation effect occurs if CIs do not cross 0; grayed out areas are for the range values of joint kinematics whereas white out areas are for the heel strike values of joint kinematics (n = 26). e Results from the mediation analyses for the comparison between minimalist shoes and barefoot; total effect (with 95% Confidence Intervals) refers to the difference in the AP MoS between footwear conditions (n = 26). f Scatterplots of the difference in MoS versus difference in hip rotation and knee abduction between minimalist shoes and supportive shoes (values at heel strike). % stride: 0—heel strike, 100—subsequent heel strike of the same limb, HA—hip abduction, HF—hip flexion, HR—hip rotation (same conventions applied to knee and ankle joints), BF—barefoot, CV—conventional supportive shoes, ML—minimalist shoes, ST—single task, DT—dual task, Δ—difference.