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. 2025 Dec 6;13:69. doi: 10.1038/s41597-025-06380-z

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© The Author(s) 2025

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Fig. 2 — Workflow for developing an integrated surface–subsurface hydrological model in geologically complex volcanic watersheds. Each colored box corresponds to a major process described in the main text: conceptualization (purple), input data processing (blue), 3D geological modeling (pink), numerical mesh generation (yellow), 3D integrated hydrological modeling (green). Data transferred between steps is indicated along the connecting arrows.