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. 2025 Dec 9;17:672. doi: 10.1038/s41467-025-67318-y

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© The Author(s) 2025

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License, which permits any non-commercial use, sharing, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if you modified the licensed material. You do not have permission under this licence to share adapted material derived from this article or parts of it. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/.

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Fig. 6 — a, b 3D contour plots for in situ Ru K-edge XANES data, c, d 2D contour plots of edge regions, e, f difference (ΔI = I_Nth – I_1st) in normalized intensity and g, h ΔI for the peak (A) of in situ Ru K-edge XANES data in 0.5 M H₂SO₄ and 1 M KOH electrolytes. In situ FT-EXAFS data and overlapped data of aRu200 in i, j 0.5 M H₂SO₄ and k, l 1 M KOH electrolytes. The insets in j, l provide enlarged views to highlight the change of the first FT peak intensity and position upon the application of electrical potential. In situ Raman data of m aRu200 and n bulk RuO₂ in 1 M KOH and o aRu200 and p bulk RuO₂ in 0.5 M H₂SO₄ electrolytes. The inset in m provides an enlarged view to highlight the shift of the Raman peak at 400–600 cm⁻¹ upon the application of electrical potential. The arrows in i, j, k, l, m are guides to highlight the shift of peaks.