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. 2025 Dec 28;16:3660. doi: 10.1038/s41598-025-33685-1

Table 5.

Comparisons of computation and communication costs among authentication protocols.

Schemes Year Computational cost Total
communication
cost : bits
User Task publisher KGC
Inline graphic 9 2024 Inline graphic Inline graphic — 800
Inline graphic 46 2023 Inline graphic Inline graphic — 1782
Inline graphic 10 2023 Inline graphic Inline graphic — 1472
Inline graphic 15 2022 Inline graphic Inline graphic Inline graphic 7872
Inline graphic 47 2020 Inline graphic Inline graphic Inline graphic 2656
DAInline graphic4FL — Inline graphic Inline graphic Inline graphic 2164