Table 3.

Adjusted between-group differences of outcome measures at post-intervention (T1) using baseline (T0) as the covariate

Outcome measures	Adjusted between-group difference	F-value	P-value	partial η²
Clinical assessments
FAC	0.37 (0.06, 0.68)	5.55	0.022*	0.089
FMA-LE	2.21 (0.95, 3.47)	12.324	0.001*	0.178
BBS	1.84 (0.31, 3.36)	5.875	0.019*	0.093
Gait parameters
Walking speed (m/s)	0.07 (0.02, 0.12)	6.522	0.013*	0.103
Step cadence (steps/min)	1.17 (− 1.91, 4.25)	0.578	0.45	0.010
Spatiotemporal parameters
Step length (m)
Affected side	0.10 (0.04, 0.17)	9.654	0.001*	0.145
Less-affected side	0.00 (− 0.05, 0.05)	0	0.986	0
Swing time (s)
Affected side	− 0.06 (− 0.11, − 0.01)	6.477	0.014*	0.102
Less-affected side	− 0.01 (− 0.05, 0.02)	0.765	0.385	0.013
Stance time (s)
Affected side	0.01 (− 0.05, 0.06)	0.019	0.892	0
Less-affected side	− 0.03 (− 0.08, 0.02)	1.466	0.231	0.025
Gait symmetry ratios
TSR	− 0.14 (− 0.21, − 0.07)	15.65	< 0.001*	0.215
SSR	− 0.30 (− 0.44, − 0.17)	20.01	< 0.001*	0.260
Kinematic parameters
Max hip flexion (degree)
Affected side	0.73 (− 2.37, 3.83)	0.222	0.640	0.004
Less-affected side	0.27 (− 1.46, 2.00)	0.099	0.754	0.002
Max knee flexion (degree)
Affected side	3.29 (0.55, 6.03)	5.780	0.019*	0.092
Less-affected side	− 1.46 (− 2.83, − 0.09)	4.542	0.037*	0.074
Max ankle dorsiflexion (degree)
Affected side	2.10 (0.85, 3.35)	11.312	0.001*	0.166
Less-affected side	0.56 (− 0.71, 1.83)	0.780	0.381	0.014
Max ankle plantarflexion (degree)
Affected side	0.69 (− 1.26, 2.65)	0.503	0.481	0.009
Less-affected side	2.74 (1.26, 4.22)	13.762	< 0.001*	0.194

Results are presented as adjusted mean differences with 95% confidence intervals (95% CI), accompanied by the corresponding F-statistic, p-value, and partial η². Effect sizes are interpreted based on partial η² (small 0.01–0.06; medium 0.06–0.14; large > 0.14). The bold font marked with * indicates significant between-group differences