Table 2.

Preprocessing operations and parameters applied to the apple leaf images.

Operation	Description	Parameters
Image resizing	Uniform scaling to fixed size	224 × 224 pixels
Noise reduction	Gaussian blur smoothing	Kernel size: 3 × 3
Color space conversion	BGR to HSV and back	-
Contrast enhancement	CLAHE applied on Value channel	Clip limit: 2.0, Tile grid: 8 × 8
Normalization	Scaling pixel intensities	Range: [0, 1]