Table 2.
Music therapy intervention.
| Authors | Year | Study design | Aim | Population | Intervention | Technology | Dose | Outcomes | Key findings |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Parkinson | |||||||||
| Impellizzeri F. et al. (28) | 2024 | Single-blind, quasi-randomized controlled trial | Assess whether coupling Neurologic Music Therapy (NMT) with immersive Virtual Reality (VR) using the CAREN platform enhances cognitive function | Parkinson’s Disease (n = 40) | Rhythmic Auditory Stimulation (RAS) and Therapeutic Instrumental Music Performance (TIMP) | CAREN platform of immersive Virtual Reality | 8 weeks Sessions: 45 min, 3 times per week |
MoCa, FAB, Stroop Test, Visual Search HAM-D | CAREN platform improves cognitive functions in PD. |
| Dauvergne et al. (31) | 2018 | Prospective single-arm pilot intervention study | To evaluate the usability, adherence, and effects of a music-based serious game on rhythmic skills in PD. | Parkinson’s Disease (n = 16) | Home-based rhythmic training using ‘Rhythm Workers’ serious game on a tablet | Tablet-based serious game (at home) | 30 min/session for 3 sessions/week for 6 weeks | Usability, adherence, SEQ, BAT rhythmic skill scores | This pilot study shows that the Rhythm Workers game is well-suited for at-home rehabilitation of rhythmic skills in PD, with initial evidence of improved rhythm perception. |
| Stroke | |||||||||
| Segura et al. (30) | 2021 | Pilot Feasibility Study | To test the feasibility and usability of an app delivering home-based enriched Music-supported Therapy (eMST) | chronic stroke (n = 5) | tablet app, MIDI-piano, and percussion instruments; gamification, progress monitoring, and personalization features included | Tablet app | 1 h/session 3 sessions/week for 10 weeks | Upper limb motor function (ARAT, FMA, BBT, NHPT, CAHAI), piano performance (speed, force tapping), usability (SUS)/feseability (interview); Adherence/Safety | The intervention was feasible and safe; improvements observed in motor function and piano performance; eMST showed promise as a telerehabilitation tool for stroke recovery. |
| Chang W. C. et al. (35) | 2019 | Pilot study | To analyze EEG patterns during mixed-reality music therapy for lower limb rehabilitation | stroke (n = 2) | MR music exercise presents holographic rhythm-game content. Participants step to music beats to hit targets. | Mixed-reality system (Hololens), IMU sensors | One single session (presence vs. absence of MR music) | Gait Kinematic outcome, EEG analysis | The patient’s motor function is significantly activating when wearing the MR system during the rehabilitation task. Flexion angle of the hemiplegic knee during walking was significantly improved when following the tempo of the MR music content. |
| Baka et al. (29) | 2018 | Preliminary qualitative clinical study | To explore virtual reality rehabilitation combined with neurologic music therapy | Stroke (n = 3) | In the VR system, patients play virtual instruments by following the movements of a friendly alien guide. | Virtual reality system (Oculus Rift and LeapMotion Controller) | 15–20 min/session for 2 times/week for 2 weeks | Kinematics data Self efficacy | This system has enabled patients to enhance their motor skills more quickly, effectively, and with greater motivation. |
| Zondervan et al. (41) | 2016 | RCT | To assess the feasibility and efficacy of MusicGlove therapy for home-based hand rehabilitation. | Chronic stroke (n = 17) experimental group (n = 9); conventionaltherapy (n = 8) | MusicGlove is a device that guides users to perform hand grips in time with music—similar to Guitar Hero—using visual and audio cues to improve movement accuracy | Sensorized glove with game interface (home use) | 3 h/week for 3 sessions/week for 3 weeks | Fugl-Meyer UE, MAL, NHPT, BBT, ARAT | MusicGlove is an effective home therapy tool. While primary outcomes were comparable to conventional therapy, MusicGlove led to significantly better results in two secondary measures: MAL Amount of Use and Quality of Movement. |
| Trobia et al. (36) | 2011 | Pilot feasibility study | To assess the feasibility of combining music and VR for supporting mental practice. | Chronic stroke (n = 2) | The upper limb training included VR-guided motor imagery with music during hospital sessions and daily home practice | VR Mirror system with DVD-based home training | 4 weeks, 3 sessions/week + daily home | ARAT, Fugl-Meyer UE, VMIQ, MBEA, diary logs | Music and VR can be feasibly integrated into mental practice for stroke rehabilitation. Two patients showed motor and ADL improvements after 8 weeks. |
| Friedman et al. (42) | 2011 | Single-session experimental study | To assess the feasibility, effectiveness, and motivation associated with MusicGlove. | Chronic stroke (n = 10) | Single-session training with MusicGlove using music to guide gripping tasks | Sensorized glove + modified rhythm video game | Single session; 6 trials of ~3 min each (with and without music) | Box and Blocks, % of notes hit, note timing, motivation scale | Music feedback was found to be a motivating tool for repetitive hand grip training, with music significantly enhancing performance and motivation. |
| Others | |||||||||
| Jeong E. et al. (37) | 2024 | Single-blind randomized crossover study | Explore the effectiveness of virtual reality–based music attention training (VR-MAT) on cognitive function | Patients with acquired brain injury (n = 24) | Music therapy via rhythm-based, interactive virtual reality drumming tasks | Non-immersive virtual reality (VR) Computer-based rhythmic drumming game developed in Unity Drums connected via Android PC |
8 weeks total Sessions: 30 min/day, 5 days/week |
TMT-B&W-B and B–A (CDR-SB) (MMSE) CANTAB: SWM; AST SST VR-MAT accuracy (task-level performance) |
VR-MAT was more effective for executive functions and attention switching. |
| Tamplin et al. (38) | 2020 | Development and feasibility study | To test the feasibility of group singing therapy via virtual reality for people with spinal cord injury | Patients with spinal cord injury (n = 6) | Group singing in online VR environment | Online virtual reality platform | Not specified | SUS, QUEST, PIADS + interviews | Usable and acceptable; supports social engagement and therapeutic potential of VR singing. |
| Cunningham et al. (32) | 2019 | Mixed-methods cohort study | To assess wellbeing outcomes from song-task association and musical reminiscence techniques in people with dementia | Individuals with dementia (n = 14) | Memory Tracks is an app that uses familiar songs to support daily tasks, helping with memory recall and reducing agitation | Mobile app | Every day in different time of the day in specific task | QoL-AD, SAM Scale, interviews with care staff | Mood, engagement, and wellbeing improved. Mobile music apps support dementia care. |
MoCA, Montreal Cognitive Assessment; FAB, Frontal Assessment Battery; Stroop Test, Stroop Color and Word Test; Visual Search, Visual Search Test; HAM-D, Hamilton Rating Scale for Depression; UTAUT, Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology; SPPB, Short Physical Performance Battery; POMA, Performance-Oriented Mobility Assessment; FES-I, Falls Efficacy Scale-International; SEQ, Suitability Evaluation Questionnaire; BAT, Beat Alignment Test; ARAT, Action Research Arm Test; FMA, Fugl-Meyer Assessment (Upper Extremity); BBT, Box and Blocks Test; NHPT, Nine Hole Peg Test; CAHAI, Chedoke Arm and Hand Activity Inventory; MAL, Motor Activity Log; VMIQ, Vividness of Movement Imagery Questionnaire; MBEA, Montreal Battery of Evaluation of Amusia; TMT-B&W, Trail Making Test – Black & White version; CDR-SB, Clinical Dementia Rating – Sum of Boxes; MMSE, Mini-Mental State Examination; CANTAB, Cambridge Neuropsychological Test Automated Battery, comprensiva dei subtest; SWM, Spatial Working Memory; AST, Attention Switching Task; SST, Stop Signal Task; VR-MAT, Virtual Reality–based Music Attention Training; SUS, System Usability Scale; QUEST, Quebec User Evaluation of Satisfaction with Assistive Technology; PIADS, Psychosocial Impact of Assistive Devices Scale; QoL-AD, Quality of Life in Alzheimer’s Disease; SAM, Self-Assessment Manikin.