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. 2026 Feb 20;16:7463. doi: 10.1038/s41598-026-40642-z

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© The Author(s) 2026

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Fig. 1 — Limitations of disease modelling with ABEs. Schematic of limitations of ABEs in generating disease models. ABEs can exhibit Cas-dependent or -independent off-target editing. Besides targeted adenines (green), ABEs also have bystander activity on non-target bases (red) within the editing window (cyan box). SpCas9 employed in ABEs recognises a 3’ NGG PAM but does not bind optimally, or at all, to non-NGG PAM sites. This figure was partially prepared with BioRender.