Table 3.
PM10 evaluation metrics of the four models.
| TIME | 1AM | 2AM | 3AM | 4AM | 5AM | 6AM | 7AM | 8AM | 9AM | 10AM | 11AM | 12PM | 1PM | 2PM | 3PM | 4PM | 5PM | 6PM | 7PM | 8PM | 9PM | 10PM | 11PM | 12AM | ||
| WINTER | SVM | MAE | 5.58 | 4.81 | 3.73 | 4.36 | 5.25 | 3.89 | 6.81 | 4.26 | 4.51 | 4.40 | 5.48 | 4.90 | 6.02 | 4.33 | 8.51 | 4.51 | 4.42 | 8.98 | 5.86 | 6.87 | 8.52 | 9.25 | 9.52 | 9.31 |
| RMSE | 10.1 | 6.30 | 5.17 | 6.30 | 6.42 | 5.80 | 8.00 | 6.68 | 5.90 | 7.77 | 5.88 | 8.62 | 6.73 | 7.12 | 7.46 | 6.58 | 4.89 | 8.25 | 8.38 | 9.51 | 12.2 | 9.95 | 6.69 | 10.25 | ||
| R2 | 0.47 | 0.59 | 0.55 | 0.44 | 0.46 | 0.68 | 0.52 | 0.68 | 0.66 | 0.82 | 0.67 | 0.55 | 0.50 | 0.44 | 0.41 | 0.49 | 0.49 | 0.39 | 0.55 | 0.42 | 0.43 | 0.42 | 0.59 | 0.81 | ||
| LSTM | MAE | 6.33 | 5.69 | 3.23 | 2.67 | 4.98 | 2.55 | 3.58 | 4.64 | 3.14 | 3.64 | 4.27 | 5.73 | 3.76 | 4.10 | 5.38 | 3.73 | 3.42 | 5.06 | 3.91 | 10.2 | 9.62 | 7.46 | 3.23 | 5.52 | |
| RMSE | 7.17 | 9.02 | 4.03 | 5.34 | 7.15 | 4.14 | 5.80 | 6.20 | 4.24 | 6.17 | 6.80 | 5.41 | 4.07 | 5.67 | 6.40 | 5.01 | 4.47 | 7.99 | 5.56 | 10.8 | 11.2 | 9.99 | 4.68 | 2.04 | ||
| R2 | 0.45 | 0.35 | 0.61 | 0.62 | 0.63 | 0.71 | 0.55 | 0.65 | 0.74 | 0.82 | 0.64 | 0.38 | 0.69 | 0.51 | 0.50 | 0.54 | 0.48 | 0.57 | 0.50 | 0.43 | 0.41 | 0.40 | 0.67 | 0.85 | ||
| SVMF | MAE | 3.36 | 2.49 | 2.65 | 2.05 | 2.21 | 2.07 | 4.25 | 2.59 | 2.00 | 2.19 | 2.33 | 3.26 | 8.21 | 4.00 | 5.47 | 3.96 | 2.62 | 7.88 | 3.04 | 7.06 | 8.84 | 6.35 | 8.21 | 7.04 | |
| RMSE | 5.40 | 3.19 | 4.97 | 4.57 | 3.95 | 3.31 | 5.22 | 2.93 | 1.96 | 4.44 | 3.83 | 3.45 | 7.07 | 4.18 | 7.41 | 4.65 | 3.87 | 8.69 | 4.06 | 7.90 | 11.2 | 7.85 | 10.21 | 7.46 | ||
| R2 | 0.56 | 0.78 | 0.78 | 0.69 | 0.81 | 0.84 | 0.85 | 0.94 | 0.83 | 0.70 | 0.78 | 0.80 | 0.66 | 0.64 | 0.78 | 0.59 | 0.78 | 0.50 | 0.69 | 0.56 | 0.49 | 0.59 | 0.75 | 0.84 | ||
| LSTMF | MAE | 2.23 | 2.65 | 1.71 | 1.74 | 1.95 | 1.48 | 2.21 | 2.19 | 1.26 | 1.87 | 2.06 | 2.40 | 2.06 | 3.95 | 3.27 | 2.82 | 1.91 | 2.33 | 2.63 | 2.25 | 3.88 | 3.79 | 9.21 | 2.02 | |
| RMSE | 3.38 | 3.74 | 3.24 | 2.90 | 3.33 | 3.04 | 3.96 | 2.60 | 1.77 | 2.91 | 3.28 | 3.37 | 4.07 | 4.08 | 4.41 | 3.62 | 3.31 | 4.11 | 3.71 | 3.01 | 3.64 | 4.23 | 9.83 | 9.29 | ||
| R2 | 0.73 | 0.82 | 0.86 | 0.75 | 0.96 | 0.69 | 0.80 | 0.67 | 0.91 | 0.78 | 0.75 | 0.71 | 0.86 | 0.77 | 0.81 | 0.96 | 0.77 | 0.70 | 0.66 | 0.58 | 0.81 | 0.59 | 0.69 | 0.65 | ||
| SPRING | SVM | MAE | 4.64 | 5.11 | 4.81 | 4.82 | 5.62 | 4.22 | 7.24 | 4.42 | 4.26 | 5.77 | 5.09 | 4.14 | 8.74 | 6.34 | 7.73 | 6.14 | 4.60 | 12.7 | 7.96 | 7.55 | 10.8 | 10.3 | 12.68 | 11.16 |
| RMSE | 9.32 | 6.58 | 6.35 | 5.99 | 6.93 | 6.07 | 8.68 | 8.40 | 6.54 | 8.81 | 6.43 | 8.76 | 8.57 | 7.67 | 9.37 | 9.14 | 5.92 | 13.2 | 11.2 | 10.1 | 14.5 | 11.0 | 7.81 | 11.90 | ||
| R2 | 0.50 | 0.48 | 0.50 | 0.49 | 0.44 | 0.79 | 0.59 | 0.67 | 0.75 | 0.64 | 0.62 | 0.46 | 0.47 | 0.31 | 0.43 | 0.39 | 0.36 | 0.29 | 0.41 | 0.33 | 0.43 | 0.36 | 0.45 | 0.66 | ||
| LSTM | MAE | 5.99 | 5.87 | 3.65 | 2.92 | 5.56 | 3.13 | 4.36 | 4.34 | 3.94 | 4.11 | 3.94 | 4.85 | 4.01 | 5.94 | 5.12 | 5.07 | 4.21 | 5.98 | 5.30 | 11.0 | 11.0 | 6.98 | 3.51 | 7.87 | |
| RMSE | 6.69 | 9.34 | 5.09 | 5.83 | 7.62 | 5.24 | 5.28 | 5.54 | 4.53 | 6.90 | 5.34 | 6.20 | 5.89 | 8.36 | 6.85 | 6.88 | 6.24 | 9.88 | 7.57 | 11.5 | 13.2 | 13.2 | 6.29 | 2.86 | ||
| R2 | 0.41 | 0.35 | 0.50 | 0.56 | 0.52 | 0.57 | 0.53 | 0.63 | 0.70 | 0.64 | 0.74 | 0.39 | 0.59 | 0.44 | 0.47 | 0.41 | 0.48 | 0.41 | 0.37 | 0.40 | 0.30 | 0.40 | 0.50 | 0.60 | ||
| SVMF | MAE | 3.11 | 2.63 | 2.98 | 2.27 | 2.38 | 2.25 | 4.49 | 2.71 | 2.18 | 2.42 | 2.55 | 3.20 | 9.00 | 5.10 | 5.87 | 4.62 | 2.74 | 12.4 | 4.18 | 7.30 | 10.3 | 8.02 | 11.37 | 11.54 | |
| RMSE | 4.97 | 2.97 | 4.63 | 5.08 | 4.34 | 3.02 | 6.53 | 3.07 | 2.15 | 5.02 | 3.17 | 3.96 | 10.5 | 5.28 | 9.26 | 5.61 | 5.26 | 14.0 | 6.42 | 8.43 | 12.8 | 7.36 | 13.72 | 10.17 | ||
| R2 | 0.57 | 0.63 | 0.71 | 0.72 | 0.91 | 0.83 | 0.83 | 0.80 | 0.77 | 0.75 | 0.71 | 0.91 | 0.56 | 0.55 | 0.61 | 0.61 | 0.57 | 0.43 | 0.53 | 0.59 | 0.42 | 0.55 | 0.57 | 0.50 | ||
| LSTMF | MAE | 2.06 | 2.51 | 1.85 | 1.89 | 2.10 | 1.85 | 2.40 | 2.35 | 1.34 | 2.49 | 2.34 | 2.37 | 2.62 | 4.86 | 3.57 | 3.34 | 2.30 | 2.85 | 4.19 | 2.07 | 3.90 | 3.61 | 12.11 | 2.47 | |
| RMSE | 3.75 | 3.99 | 3.08 | 3.17 | 3.64 | 3.36 | 3.68 | 2.41 | 1.99 | 3.16 | 3.22 | 3.33 | 4.34 | 4.45 | 4.12 | 3.62 | 3.38 | 4.94 | 4.99 | 2.74 | 4.12 | 4.86 | 11.14 | 11.47 | ||
| R2 | 0.77 | 0.78 | 0.79 | 0.80 | 0.88 | 0.74 | 0.76 | 0.67 | 0.83 | 0.71 | 0.78 | 0.82 | 0.70 | 0.55 | 0.89 | 0.85 | 0.67 | 0.60 | 0.58 | 0.63 | 0.69 | 0.58 | 0.52 | 0.46 | ||
| SUMMER | SVM | MAE | 4.56 | 4.27 | 4.68 | 4.37 | 5.98 | 3.76 | 6.93 | 4.38 | 4.60 | 4.54 | 8.05 | 7.04 | 5.85 | 4.97 | 7.14 | 4.77 | 4.40 | 8.16 | 6.01 | 7.33 | 7.95 | 7.70 | 9.13 | 8.45 |
| RMSE | 9.47 | 5.61 | 6.50 | 7.78 | 7.58 | 6.64 | 9.24 | 8.11 | 6.04 | 8.08 | 8.41 | 10.9 | 8.36 | 6.88 | 7.43 | 6.98 | 5.60 | 8.25 | 8.93 | 8.86 | 8.96 | 7.16 | 5.64 | 9.14 | ||
| R2 | 0.41 | 0.56 | 0.51 | 0.46 | 0.49 | 0.73 | 0.46 | 0.64 | 0.67 | 0.81 | 0.44 | 0.32 | 0.57 | 0.37 | 0.46 | 0.40 | 0.41 | 0.38 | 0.46 | 0.39 | 0.58 | 0.57 | 0.51 | 0.79 | ||
| LSTM | MAE | 5.12 | 6.51 | 3.62 | 3.13 | 4.97 | 3.28 | 4.93 | 4.30 | 3.69 | 4.51 | 6.16 | 8.21 | 3.92 | 4.77 | 4.63 | 4.67 | 3.47 | 4.46 | 4.05 | 9.49 | 7.86 | 6.14 | 2.56 | 5.97 | |
| RMSE | 7.81 | 8.06 | 4.96 | 5.42 | 6.78 | 5.44 | 7.04 | 5.64 | 3.60 | 5.61 | 8.69 | 7.47 | 4.03 | 6.61 | 7.34 | 6.44 | 5.27 | 8.39 | 5.92 | 10.3 | 9.55 | 8.51 | 5.40 | 1.88 | ||
| R2 | 0.40 | 0.35 | 0.49 | 0.64 | 0.50 | 0.66 | 0.42 | 0.72 | 0.86 | 0.79 | 0.40 | 0.31 | 0.79 | 0.46 | 0.49 | 0.44 | 0.48 | 0.56 | 0.42 | 0.47 | 0.42 | 0.53 | 0.68 | 0.71 | ||
| SVMF | MAE | 3.79 | 2.46 | 2.97 | 2.89 | 2.85 | 2.31 | 5.01 | 3.23 | 1.75 | 2.32 | 3.96 | 4.57 | 7.16 | 4.07 | 6.58 | 3.70 | 2.32 | 7.66 | 2.71 | 6.52 | 7.20 | 6.14 | 9.23 | 7.18 | |
| RMSE | 5.20 | 3.32 | 5.24 | 5.53 | 4.41 | 3.17 | 7.22 | 2.98 | 2.32 | 4.66 | 5.70 | 5.56 | 8.52 | 4.96 | 7.20 | 5.10 | 3.72 | 8.87 | 4.18 | 7.45 | 8.04 | 5.70 | 8.32 | 8.77 | ||
| R2 | 0.59 | 0.77 | 0.84 | 0.67 | 0.89 | 0.92 | 0.63 | 0.81 | 0.82 | 0.67 | 0.52 | 0.55 | 0.64 | 0.66 | 0.66 | 0.57 | 0.65 | 0.57 | 0.59 | 0.62 | 0.56 | 0.71 | 0.66 | 0.68 | ||
| LSTMF | MAE | 2.14 | 2.81 | 1.79 | 2.42 | 1.97 | 1.98 | 2.25 | 2.30 | 1.08 | 1.93 | 3.12 | 2.92 | 2.48 | 3.86 | 2.91 | 3.02 | 1.97 | 2.33 | 3.21 | 1.79 | 3.29 | 3.19 | 7.59 | 1.78 | |
| RMSE | 3.87 | 3.87 | 3.04 | 2.92 | 3.33 | 3.46 | 4.73 | 2.72 | 1.77 | 2.96 | 4.90 | 5.36 | 3.66 | 3.99 | 4.43 | 3.85 | 2.89 | 3.65 | 4.39 | 2.35 | 2.95 | 3.05 | 8.29 | 8.31 | ||
| R2 | 0.66 | 0.82 | 0.92 | 0.76 | 0.97 | 0.63 | 0.60 | 0.67 | 0.87 | 0.85 | 0.50 | 0.50 | 0.85 | 0.67 | 0.91 | 0.93 | 0.66 | 0.70 | 0.77 | 0.73 | 0.81 | 0.76 | 0.69 | 0.73 | ||
| AUTUMN | SVM | MAE | 5.97 | 4.68 | 4.46 | 3.74 | 4.73 | 3.41 | 5.73 | 4.33 | 4.04 | 5.07 | 4.09 | 4.64 | 5.66 | 5.00 | 8.36 | 4.58 | 4.46 | 9.17 | 5.63 | 5.68 | 8.07 | 6.51 | 10.49 | 9.42 |
| RMSE | 9.25 | 6.20 | 5.05 | 6.35 | 6.14 | 5.00 | 6.46 | 5.96 | 5.54 | 7.60 | 6.21 | 8.47 | 7.83 | 6.10 | 8.56 | 8.05 | 5.03 | 9.75 | 7.02 | 7.46 | 8.84 | 8.00 | 7.45 | 8.93 | ||
| R2 | 0.38 | 0.46 | 0.63 | 0.52 | 0.49 | 0.72 | 0.53 | 0.63 | 0.81 | 0.81 | 0.71 | 0.56 | 0.58 | 0.37 | 0.47 | 0.40 | 0.41 | 0.38 | 0.46 | 0.43 | 0.51 | 0.48 | 0.55 | 0.79 | ||
| LSTM | MAE | 5.83 | 6.20 | 3.40 | 3.07 | 4.20 | 2.54 | 3.90 | 3.69 | 3.30 | 4.25 | 4.36 | 4.60 | 3.72 | 4.78 | 5.35 | 4.65 | 3.53 | 5.15 | 3.68 | 6.95 | 6.70 | 5.27 | 2.98 | 6.89 | |
| RMSE | 7.57 | 10.0 | 3.99 | 5.49 | 5.85 | 4.00 | 5.49 | 4.81 | 3.41 | 5.41 | 5.08 | 5.23 | 4.61 | 6.78 | 7.30 | 6.33 | 4.72 | 8.16 | 6.36 | 8.59 | 9.42 | 9.64 | 5.15 | 1.85 | ||
| R2 | 0.38 | 0.27 | 0.53 | 0.63 | 0.65 | 0.60 | 0.59 | 0.79 | 0.89 | 0.82 | 0.79 | 0.39 | 0.84 | 0.44 | 0.50 | 0.51 | 0.48 | 0.57 | 0.51 | 0.52 | 0.48 | 0.47 | 0.73 | 0.81 | ||
| SVMF | MAE | 3.56 | 3.27 | 2.78 | 2.42 | 2.06 | 2.01 | 3.47 | 2.77 | 1.59 | 2.18 | 2.07 | 3.03 | 7.08 | 4.00 | 6.35 | 3.68 | 2.34 | 7.67 | 2.60 | 6.45 | 6.34 | 5.02 | 8.96 | 7.32 | |
| RMSE | 4.77 | 3.70 | 4.36 | 4.01 | 3.73 | 3.31 | 5.00 | 2.57 | 1.79 | 3.76 | 3.08 | 3.17 | 7.24 | 4.22 | 7.17 | 4.29 | 3.80 | 8.89 | 4.73 | 7.37 | 9.17 | 6.36 | 9.68 | 8.77 | ||
| R2 | 0.52 | 0.62 | 0.76 | 0.77 | 0.87 | 0.91 | 0.77 | 0.93 | 0.75 | 0.70 | 0.85 | 0.79 | 0.66 | 0.74 | 0.79 | 0.57 | 0.65 | 0.48 | 0.60 | 0.77 | 0.66 | 0.85 | 0.70 | 0.80 | ||
| LSTMF | MAE | 2.09 | 3.04 | 1.68 | 1.70 | 1.84 | 1.71 | 1.80 | 1.72 | 0.99 | 1.82 | 2.18 | 2.00 | 1.99 | 3.36 | 3.36 | 3.05 | 2.00 | 2.33 | 2.62 | 1.54 | 3.20 | 3.14 | 8.45 | 1.78 | |
| RMSE | 3.72 | 4.97 | 2.89 | 2.87 | 2.69 | 3.12 | 3.27 | 2.31 | 1.88 | 2.82 | 2.97 | 3.69 | 3.44 | 4.04 | 4.32 | 3.88 | 3.36 | 4.23 | 3.57 | 2.07 | 3.38 | 3.44 | 10.97 | 8.31 | ||
| R2 | 0.71 | 0.63 | 0.82 | 0.74 | 0.98 | 0.69 | 0.71 | 0.74 | 0.92 | 0.88 | 0.69 | 0.72 | 0.88 | 0.66 | 0.78 | 0.83 | 0.76 | 0.70 | 0.81 | 0.84 | 0.95 | 0.66 | 0.63 | 0.72 |