Mindfulness and life satisfaction in post-earthquake young adults: longitudinal mediation by psychological adjustment

Abstract

Large-scale traumatic events such as earthquakes have profound and long-lasting impacts on individuals’ psychological well-being. However, the protective mechanisms that may foster adjustment and support life satisfaction in the aftermath of such disasters remain insufficiently explored. This longitudinal study examined the mediating role of psychological adjustment in the relationship between mindfulness and life satisfaction among young adult earthquake survivors. Data were collected through two web-based surveys conducted approximately six months apart. The final sample consisted of 277 Turkish young adults (58.5% female; M = 21.52, SD = 2.29). Using a cross-lagged panel model for a half-longitudinal design, the findings revealed that mindfulness at Time 1 significantly predicted higher psychological adjustment at Time 2, which in turn contributed to greater life satisfaction. Moreover, psychological adjustment mediated the longitudinal association between mindfulness and life satisfaction. In this context, the findings suggest that mindfulness-based interventions and structured psychological counseling can effectively support life satisfaction and post-trauma adjustment, offering practical guidance for post-disaster mental health practices.

Background

Earthquakes, due to their sudden and unpredictable nature, are among the natural disasters that most adversely affect psychological adjustment [23, 47]. On February 6, 2023, Türkiye was struck by two major earthquakes, regarded as among the most devastating natural disasters of the last century. Kahramanmaraş-centered, a city in the Mediterranean Region of the country, these earthquakes affected 11 provinces, leading to more than 50,000 fatalities and injured over 100,000 individuals [1]. Despite the time that has elapsed, the consequences remain profound. As efforts to rebuild the affected cities persist, numerous individuals are still grappling with housing and economic challenges, which further intensify the psychological distress caused by the disaster.

The international literature suggests that large-scale seismic events of this magnitude result in enduring psychological effects in adults, making their adaptation processes particularly critical [34, 40]. Empirical evidence further indicates that earthquakes are associated with adverse psychological outcomes in adults, including anxiety, depression, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and sleep disturbances [4, 14, 16, 36, 61]. Alfuqaha et al. [3] reported elevated prevalence rates of PTSD following a large-scale earthquake, while Çınaroğlu et al. [13] documented a significant increase in depression and anxiety levels among adults following the earthquake. In their 20-year cohort study on the Jiji earthquake in Taiwan, Huang et al. [22] identified that exposure to the earthquake significantly increased the long-term risk of depression, anxiety, and sleep disturbances. These findings underscore the potential for earthquakes to generate long-lasting and detrimental psychological consequences.

On the other hand, research within the framework of positive psychology highlights that individuals may also experience meaningful growth and development following challenging events such as earthquakes [65]. Indeed, several studies have shown that, in the aftermath of earthquakes, individuals may report increased life satisfaction, enhanced psychological resilience, and strengthened coping abilities. Protective factors such as flexibility, hope, social support, and effective coping strategies play crucial roles in this process [12, 21, 70]. For example, Teke and Karaman [66] found that hope mediated the relationship between earthquake exposure and life satisfaction among adults. Similarly, recent studies, encompassing various methodologies [60, 68], indicate that individuals may demonstrate a propensity for recovery and enhancement in their subjective well-being and life satisfaction over time following a disaster. Collectively, this body of work suggests that post-disaster experiences should be understood not only in terms of loss and psychopathology but also through individuals’ capacity for adaptation and growth.

The literature includes studies examining the association between earthquakes and both positive and negative indicators of mental health (e.g., [3, 28]). However, the majority of this research has predominantly focused on the adverse consequences of earthquakes [32, 36], while the role of protective or adaptive resources has remained insufficiently explored [35]. The present study aims to examine the mediating role of psychological adjustment, conceptualized as a positive variable, in the relationship between mindfulness and life satisfaction among young adults affected by the February 6, 2023 earthquakes. Thus, the study highlights the necessity for psychological interventions to address not only risk factors but also the protective and empowering attributes of individuals.

Mindfulness and life satisfaction

Mindfulness is defined as the individual’s ability to focus on the present moment, to accept thoughts and emotions non-judgmentally, and to consciously engage with experiences [6, 25]. From the meaning-making perspective, mindfulness enables individuals to manage negative experiences and to discover positive meanings in their lives [19, 30]. Consequently, individuals can disengage from automatic thought patterns and evaluate events with increased openness and acceptance, thereby enhancing emotion regulation and promoting positive psychological experiences [9, 64].

Empirical studies have demonstrated that mindfulness is positively associated with psychological well-being [67, 71],higher levels of mindfulness are linked to enhanced positive affect, greater life satisfaction, and elevated self-esteem [31, 44, 52], while concurrently mitigating negative outcomes such as depression, anxiety, and stress [6, 39, 59]. For instance; in a study by Conversano et al. [10], individuals exhibiting higher mindfulness have been shown to cope more effectively with stressful experiences following adverse life events and to report higher overall psychological well-being. Likewise, mindfulness-based interventions have been found by Chang et al. [8] to reduce perceived stress and promote positive mental states [20].

The positive effects of mindfulness on psychological well-being are also evident in relation to life satisfaction, which refers to individuals’ cognitive evaluations of their overall quality of life and is primarily shaped by personal perceptions [48, 62]. Mindfulness may enhance life satisfaction by enabling individuals to evaluate their lives in a non-judgmental manner and to derive fulfillment from present experiences [6, 19, 30]. For instance, Parmaksız [46] and Özdoğan and Çelik [44] reported a positive association between mindfulness and life satisfaction. Similarly, de Vibe et al. [17] and Wang and Kong [69] demonstrated that mindfulness practices contribute to greater life satisfaction among individuals.

While existing studies on the relationship between mindfulness and life satisfaction have provided valuable insights, most have relied on cross-sectional designs, which restrict the ability to examine dynamic processes over time. Longitudinal approaches, however, offer a more comprehensive perspective on how traumatic events influence mental health, and they allow for a deeper understanding of the protective and adaptive functions of mindfulness and life satisfaction. In this context, the present study makes a novel contribution by adopting a longitudinal design to explore the relationship between mindfulness and life satisfaction among young adult survivors of an earthquake disaster. By doing so, it seeks to shed light on the mechanisms that facilitate positive adaptation in the aftermath of large-scale trauma, thereby extending the literature on resilience and well-being.

The mediating role of psychological adjustment

Psychological adjustment refers to individuals’ capacity to maintain balance and sustain functioning when confronted with stressful life events [11]. In this study, psychological adjustment is conceptualized as a dynamic process through which individuals functionally reorganize their psychological resources in response to environmental conditions that are often beyond their control. Previous studies have demonstrated that psychological adjustment is negatively associated with depression, anxiety, and stress, while being positively related to hope, self-control, well-being, life satisfaction, and mindfulness [5, 18, 38, 42, 72]. Furthermore, empirical evidence suggests that individuals with higher levels of psychological adaptation are able to maintain daily functioning and restore psychological equilibrium even when the stressor persists, particularly in the context of sudden, unexpected, and highly disruptive events such as earthquakes [43],Satıcı et al., 2024). In this context, meta-analytic findings reveal consistent relationships between post-disaster coping strategies and indicators of psychological adjustment and maladjustment [51], while longitudinal studies elucidate the progression of positive psychological indicators over time following a disaster [29]. Taken together, these findings suggest that psychological adjustment may be an important explanatory mechanism in understanding patterns associated with post-disaster psychological well-being.

Previous research has demonstrated that mindfulness is a significant factor in strengthening psychological adjustment [27, 33], while adjustment itself has been found to be directly associated with life satisfaction [7]. Mindfulness may support individuals in developing a more resilient and accepting relationship with stress by enabling them to observe stressful experiences without judgment, regulate emotional responses, and reduce automatic tendencies toward avoidance or repression (Goldberg et al., 2022; [27]). This awareness- and acceptance-oriented approach has been suggested to be closely associated with individuals’ capacity for psychological adjustment and to facilitate more functional coping patterns in the context of traumatic life events. Theoretically, this perspective is consistent with Mindfulness Meaning Theory, which emphasizes meaning-making and positive coping processes fostered through mindfulness [19]. However, particularly in the case of traumatic events characterized by uncontrollability and persistence, such as earthquakes, the effect of mindfulness on life satisfaction is expected to operate indirectly through explanatory psychological mechanisms, including psychological adjustment.

From a positive psychology perspective, individuals can activate their personal strengths even in the face of challenging experiences, thereby sustaining their life satisfaction [57, 58]. In this regard, psychological adjustment may function as a bridging mechanism that translates the awareness and acceptance processes fostered by mindfulness into sustainable functioning and enhanced subjective life satisfaction. Although mindfulness has been shown to contribute to stress reduction, meaning in life, strengthened self-evaluative processes, and increased positive affect [30], psychological adjustment is posited to play a decisive role in the extent to which these benefits are reflected in life satisfaction. Accordingly, mindfulness is expected to influence life satisfaction not only directly but also indirectly through psychological adjustment. Consistent with this reasoning, the present study posits psychological adjustment as a mediating variable in the relationship between mindfulness and life satisfaction.

The present study

Large-scale disasters such as earthquakes leave profound and enduring effects on individuals’ mental health and their capacity to cope with stress. Identifying protective factors is therefore critical to supporting post-trauma recovery and minimizing adverse outcomes. However, most prior research has predominantly focused on the short-term and pathological consequences of such events, while the long-term adjustment processes and the mechanisms underlying them remain insufficiently understood. Within this context, mindfulness emerges as a significant protective factor, given its potential to help individuals maintain emotional balance and sustain functioning in the face of traumatic experiences. Similarly, psychological adjustment, defined as the capacity to flexibly adapt to changing circumstances, plays a crucial role in fostering positive life outcomes.

The primary aim of the present study is to longitudinally examine the potential mediating role of psychological adjustment in the relationship between mindfulness and life satisfaction among young adults affected by the February 6, 2023 earthquake. By addressing this aim, the study not only sheds light on mechanisms that support positive adaptation after large-scale trauma but also represents one of the few empirical efforts to investigate the interplay of mindfulness, psychological adjustment, and life satisfaction in a post-disaster context.

The findings of this study are expected to provide concrete evidence on the potential of mindfulness-based interventions and counseling practices to facilitate post-traumatic recovery, enhance life satisfaction, and support individuals’ psychological adjustment processes. Such insights may contribute to the development and implementation of more effective psychological support and counseling programs in the aftermath of disasters. In line with this rationale, the present study examined the following hypotheses: (a) Mindfulness would be positively associated with psychological adjustment (b) psychological adjustment would be positively associated with life satisfaction, and (c) psychological adjustment would play a mediating role in the relationship between mindfulness and life satisfaction (In this study, psychological adjustment was operationalized as a positive construct based on reverse-coded scores, with higher scores indicating better psychological adjustment).

Method

Participants

Data for this study were collected through web-based surveys administered at two time points approximately six months apart. The initial phase of data collection (Time 1; T1) was completed in March, followed by the second phase (Time 2; T2) completed in September. During T1, a total of 357 young adults participated in the survey, whereas 301 completed the assessment at T2. After matching participants across both assessments, the final sample consisted of 277 Turkish young adults who completed both surveys. Of these participants, 162 (58.5%) were women and 115 (41.5%) were men. Their ages ranged from 18 to 32 years, with a mean age of 21.52 (SD = 2.29). Young adults were selected as the study sample due to the ongoing formation of their psychological adjustment processes and life orientations, as well as their theoretical relevance for examining the effects of large-scale stressors.

In terms of educational level, 58 participants (20.9%) were first-year, 78 (28.2%) second-year, 73 (26.4%) third-year, and 68 (24.5%) fourth-year university students. Twenty-four participants (8.7%) reported the loss of a loved one due to the earthquake. Regarding the extent of housing damage, 70 (25.3%) reported no or minor damage, 133 (48.0%) moderate damage, 25 (9.0%) severe damage, and 49 (17.7%) complete destruction. All participants indicated that they had not received psychological counseling or similar interventions prior to the study.

To facilitate the linkage of responses between Time 1 and Time 2, participants were requested to provide memorable yet anonymous identifiers, such as their primary school student number, the name of their primary school teacher, and a personal nickname. Participants were explicitly instructed to refrain from providing any directly identifiable personal information. These identifiers were employed solely for the purpose of linking responses across time points and were not associated with any directly identifiable personal data, thereby mitigating the risk of re-identification. Consequently, anonymity and confidentiality were preserved throughout data storage and destruction, ensuring no risk of re-identification. The study adhered to data protection standards applicable to web-based surveys; no identifying information was collected, all data were transmitted securely, and stored on password-protected servers accessible exclusively to the researcher.

The link to the web-based survey was distributed to participants through the author’s social media accounts. Prior to participation, all participants were informed regarding the purpose and procedures of the study, and informed consent was obtained. It was emphasized that participation was entirely voluntary, and no compensation was provided. Participants received no financial compensation or incentives of any kind for taking part in the study.

To ensure contextual relevance, participants received the following instruction at the beginning of the survey: “Please answer the following questions by considering your experiences and current situation following the February 6, 2023 earthquake.” The survey platform allowed participants to withdraw at any point, with responses recorded only if all questions had been completed. To reduce potential response bias and enhance reliability, filler items unrelated to the study’s focal constructs were embedded within the questionnaires. On average, participation required approximately 10 min.

Prior to the research, ethics committee approval (38/06) was obtained from Malatya Turgut Özal University Ethics Committee, Türkiye. Furthermore, the study was conducted in accordance with the ethical principles outlined in the 1964 Declaration of Helsinki and its subsequent amendments. Professional ethical standards were adhered throughout the research process.

Measures

Mindfulness

The Mindful Attention Awareness Scale (MAAS; [6]) was used to measure participants’ mindfulness levels. The scale consists of 15 items rated on a 6-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (almost always) to 6 (almost never). An example item is, “I rush through activities without being really attentive to them.” Total scores range from 15 to 90, with higher scores reflecting greater mindfulness. The MAAS has demonstrated sound psychometric properties and has been validated for use with Turkish adult samples [45].

Psychological adjustment

Participants’ psychological adjustment was assessed using the Brief Adjustment Scale–6 (BASE-6; [11]). The instrument comprises six items rated on a 7-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (not at all) to 7 (extremely). An example item is, “To what extent have you felt irritable, angry, and/or resentful this week?” Possible total scores range from 6 to 42. In the original BASE-6, higher scores signified more challenges in psychological adjustment. Nonetheless, in this research, psychological adjustment was considered a positive variable, leading to the reverse coding of scale items. The total scores were calculated similarly to the approach in earlier studies [2, 63]. Consequently, this adjustment meant that higher scores indicated a better level of psychological adjustment. The BASE-6 has demonstrated robust psychometric properties and has been validated for use with Turkish adult populations [72].

Life satisfaction

Participants’ life satisfaction was measured using the Contentment with Life Scale [74]. The CLAS consists of five items rated on a 7-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). An example item is, “I am satisfied with my life.” Total scores range from 5 to 35, with higher scores reflecting greater life satisfaction. The scale has demonstrated strong psychometric properties and has been validated for use with Turkish adult populations [73].

Data analysis

Data were analyzed using IBM SPSS Statistics and AMOS Graphics (version 24). Descriptive statistics (means, standard deviations) and reliability coefficients were first computed for each variable at both time points, along with Pearson’s correlation coefficients to examine bivariate associations. Prior to conducting the primary analyses, the necessary assumption checks for SEM and the half-longitudinal cross-lagged panel model were assessed. The diagnostics for multicollinearity showed no breaches, the residuals adhered to the assumptions of independence and approximate normality, and there were no univariate or multivariate outliers detected. Additionally, the residual variances were consistent, and scatterplots confirmed linear relationships among the variables. These assessments verified that the data satisfied the assumptions required for SEM and the half-longitudinal model. To test the hypothesized longitudinal mediation model, a cross-lagged panel analysis within a half-longitudinal design was employed. This approach examined whether mindfulness at T1 was associated with subsequent changes in psychological adjustment at T2, and whether psychological adjustment at T1 was associated with subsequent changes in life satisfaction at T2.

The indirect effect was determined using a cross-lagged panel model within a two-wave longitudinal framework, adhering to the principles of the half-longitudinal method [49]. Specifically, the longitudinal path from T1 mindfulness to T2 psychological adjustment, while accounting for T1 psychological adjustment (a path), and the path from T1 psychological adjustment to T2 life satisfaction, while controlling for T1 life satisfaction (b path), were multiplied to compute the indirect effect. The model's fit was assessed using established criteria: a good fit is indicated by values in proximity to or exceeding 0.90 for the comparative fit index (CFI) and the normed fit index (IFI), and below 0.08 for the standardized root mean squared residual (SRMR). RMSEA values were assessed based on established SEM fit criteria [56]. Indirect (mediated) effects were examined using bias-corrected bootstrapping with 5,000 resamples to derive 95% confidence intervals. Age and gender were included as covariates to account for demographic factors that might influence psychological outcomes in the aftermath of large-scale traumatic events.

Results

Preliminary analyses

Preliminary analyses indicated that skewness values ranged from –0.12 to 0.36 and kurtosis values from –0.88 to 0.11. These values fall within the acceptable range of |1|, suggesting that all variables were normally distributed [15, 37]. Reliability analyses further demonstrated strong internal consistency, with Cronbach’s alpha coefficients ranging from 0.87 to 0.94, well above the recommended threshold of 0.70 [41].

As shown in Table 1, all study variables were significantly correlated at both Time 1 and Time 2. Specifically, mindfulness was positively associated with psychological adjustment and life satisfaction across both time points (psychological adjustment scores were reverse-coded; higher scores indicate better adjustment). In addition, psychological adjustment was positively correlated with life satisfaction at both Time 1 and Time 2 (see Table 1).

Table 1.

Descriptive statistics and reliabilities for the study variables

Variable	1	2	3	4	5	6
1. Mindfulness T1	–
2. Mindfulness T2	.50**	–
3. Psychological adjustment T1	.38**	.34**	–
4. Psychological adjustment T2	.36**	.33**	.50**	–
5. Life satisfaction T1	.37**	.27**	.46**	.43**	–
6. Life satisfaction T2	.33**	.31**	.48**	.51**	.81**	–
Mean	57.81	55.65	24.39	25.78	20.87	21.40
SD	12.32	13.59	8.78	9.54	6.34	6.59
Skewness	-.36	-.19	-.12	-.19	-.29	-.36
Kurtosis	-.18	.11	-.74	-.88	-.60	-.50
Cronbach α	.87	.91	.91	.94	.89	.91

Correlations represent zero-order (uncontrolled) associations. Cross-sectional correlations for Time 1 and Time 2 are reported separately. Higher scores indicate better psychological adjustment due to reverse scoring of all BASE-6 items in the present study. ^**p <.001

An analysis of attrition was performed to determine if there were any differences between participants who completed both waves and those who did not continue to Time 2. The chi-square test revealed no significant differences in gender between the groups (p > 0.05). Additionally, independent samples t-tests found no significant differences between those who remained and those who dropped out in terms of age (t = –0.51, p > 0.05), mindfulness at Time 1 (t = –1.38, p > 0.05), psychological adjustment at Time 1 (t = 0.46, p > 0.05), or life satisfaction at Time 1 (t = 0.40, p > 0.05). These results indicate that the attrition was not systematic and is unlikely to bias the longitudinal findings.

Half-longitudinal mediation model

To test the main study hypothesis, we employed a cross-lagged panel model for a half-longitudinal design, as proposed by Preacher [49], which enables the examination of mediation with two measurement points (Fig. 1; see also [50, 54], for applications of this approach). In this model, psychological adjustment was specified as a theoretically grounded longitudinal mediator in the association between mindfulness and life satisfaction. The model demonstrated acceptable fit to the data, χ²(156, N = 277) = 551.77, p < 0.001; χ²/df = 3.54; SRMR = 0.07; CFI = 0.90; IFI = 0.90. RMSEA = 0.09, 90% CI [0.08, 0.10]. As hypothesized, mindfulness at Time 1 significantly predicted higher psychological adjustment at Time 2, controlling for prior levels of psychological adjustment (β = 0.223, SE = 0.039, p < 0.001). Furthermore, psychological adjustment at Time 1 significantly predicted higher life satisfaction at Time 2, controlling for baseline life satisfaction (β = 0.106, SE = 0.013, p < 0.05). Stability paths were also significant, such that psychological adjustment (β = 0.435, SE = 0.069, p < 0.001) and life satisfaction (β = 0.813, SE = 0.068, p < 0.001) at Time 1 strongly predicted their corresponding constructs at Time 2. Taken together, these findings provide support for a longitudinal indirect association between mindfulness and life satisfaction, with psychological adjustment functioning as an explanatory mechanism over time.

Fig. 1.

Cross-lagged panel model for a half-longitudinal design testing the indirect association between mindfulness and life satisfaction through psychological adjustment following the earthquake. Psychological adjustment scores were reverse-coded; higher scores indicate better adjustment. Standardized path coefficients are presented. Solid lines represent structural paths and dashed lines represent covariate effects of age and gender. T1 = Time 1; T2 = Time 2. *p <.05, **p <.001

Age and gender were considered as covariates in the analysis. Several paths involving these covariates showed statistical significance. Gender was a significant predictor of mindfulness at Time 2 (β = 0.119, SE = 0.762, p < 0.05), while age was a significant predictor of both psychological adjustment (β = 0.165, SE = 0.105, p < 0.01) and life satisfaction at Time 2 (β = 0.128, SE = 0.018, p < 0.001). Other covariate paths did not reach significance, including the impact of gender on psychological adjustment (β = –0.034, p > 0.05) and life satisfaction (β = 0.016, p > 0.05), as well as the influence of age on mindfulness (β = –0.077, p > 0.05). These variables were retained in the model to account for their potential effects on the study's variables.

The study investigated the indirect influence of mindfulness at Time 1 on life satisfaction at Time 2, mediated by psychological adjustment, using bias-corrected bootstrapping with 5,000 resamples. The standardized indirect effect was found to be statistically significant (β = 0.212), with a 95% bias-corrected confidence interval excluded zero (CI [0.084, 0.346]). These findings support the robustness of the half-longitudinal indirect effect, suggesting that psychological adjustment may serve as a longitudinal mediator in the relationship between mindfulness and life satisfaction.

Discussion

Large-scale traumatic events, such as earthquakes, lead to profound and enduring effects on individuals’ mental health, thereby posing a serious threat to public health. Research conducted in the aftermath of the February 6, 2023 earthquakes has documented elevated prevalence of adverse psychological outcomes, including depression, anxiety, and PTSD, among affected population [3, 13], consistent with global research findings that suggest disasters have enduring mental health impacts on adults (e.g., [34, 40]).

From the perspective of positive psychology, disaster experiences are not solely associated with destruction; rather, certain individuals may derive benefits from protective factors that enable them to sustain their psychological functioning during such events. In this regard, protective factors such as hope, social support, and psychological resilience can enhance life satisfaction by bolstering individuals' capacity to cope with challenges [12, 21, 66]. Hence, based on protective factors, this study examines mindfulness and psychological adjustment (as a positive variable) through a longitudinal model to explore how these factors may relate to individuals' life satisfaction in the post-disaster period.

In line with the study’s initial hypothesis, mindfulness was found to be positively associated with psychological adjustment. This finding is consistent with meta-analytic findings showing that mindfulness-based interventions have moderate and consistent effects in reducing stress, depression, and psychological distress, while enhancing quality of life (Goldberg et al., 2022; [26]). These studies indicate that mindfulness can particularly contribute to reducing negative emotional responses and enabling individuals to maintain a more balanced psychological functioning in the face of stressful experiences. In this context, as suggested by Mindfulness Meaning Theory [19], mindfulness can alleviate stress-related psychological distress by fostering a non-judgmental and accepting attitude towards experiences. Indeed, previous studies have shown that individuals with high levels of mindfulness develop a more resilient approach to stressful life events and are more effective in maintaining psychological equilibrium [27],Lykins & Baer, ​​2009). When these mechanisms are collectively considered, it becomes evident that mindfulness can be an important protective resource supporting psychological adaptation after a disaster.

Secondly, psychological adjustment was found to be positively associated with life satisfaction. This result aligns with prior research showing that psychological adjustment helps individuals preserve their functionality in the face of stressful events and sustain their subjective well-being [11, 55]. Cognitive flexibility, effective emotion regulation, and the utilization of coping mechanisms are associated with enhanced life satisfaction when confronted with challenges [6, 30]. Particularly in the aftermath of disasters, strong psychological adjustment not only reduces mental health problems but also fosters the capacity to derive meaning and satisfaction from life.

Thirdly, the findings provide longitudinal support for a temporally ordered indirect association involving psychological adjustment in the relationship between mindfulness and life satisfaction. This finding is consistent with extensive meta-analyses that highlight mindfulness as a contributor to well-being and a regulator of emotional processes (Goldberg et al., 2022; [53, 67, 71]). The literature shows that mindfulness not only alleviates stress but also assists individuals in processing challenging or traumatic experiences within a more manageable emotional framework [10, 44]. While the two-wave design necessitates caution in disentangling directionality and may be sensitive to the specific time lag between measurements, the observed indirect pathway suggests that psychological adjustment may function as a prospective link between earlier mindfulness and subsequent life satisfaction. This pattern of temporal association aligns with the broader theoretical framework of positive psychology. Indeed, according to this framework, protective psychological resources such as mindfulness can facilitate the development of a less reactive, more mindful, and more accepting attitude towards external stressors [58]. This process may contribute to higher levels of psychological adjustment, which are in turn associated with greater life satisfaction [7, 27, 55]. Therefore, the mediating effect observed suggests that mindfulness may function as one of the psychological processes associated with well-being in a post-disaster context.

The high level of stability of life satisfaction between Time 1 and Time 2 (r = 0.81) suggests that it functions as a relatively stable, trait-like characteristic in this sample. This high stability may have limited the amount of variation that could be explained through psychological adjustment, which is consistent with previous research indicating that life satisfaction can demonstrate relatively stable characteristics in longitudinal studies [24]. Consequently, the mediating role of psychological adjustment should be interpreted as explaining the incremental change or the maintained level of life satisfaction, rather than a radical transformation in well-being. Nonetheless, the significant mediating role identified in this study indicates that exploring the connections between mindfulness and life satisfaction in young adults, in conjunction with psychological adjustment, holds theoretical significance. Therefore, this study establishes a framework for understanding the interconnections among mindfulness, psychological adjustment, and life satisfaction over time in young adults within a post-disaster setting.

Limitations and future directions

While this study offers valuable insights, it is important to acknowledge several limitations that may affect the interpretation of the findings. Primarily, the sample was exclusively composed of young adults aged 18 to 32, which restricts the representativeness and generalizability of the results. The developmental characteristics unique to young adulthood may have influenced the observed relationships among mindfulness, psychological adjustment, and life satisfaction. Consequently, caution should be exercised when applying these findings to other age groups. Future research should aim to include more diverse samples to improve external validity.

Second, the study employed a two-wave, half-longitudinal design. While this approach allows examination of temporal associations, it offers only partial evidence for temporal precedence in mediation models. This design is unable to entirely eliminate reciprocal effects or the possibility that life satisfaction may also influence psychological adjustment over time. The two-wave designs also depend on assumptions such as stationarity and the temporal stability of structural paths that cannot be empirically verified with solely two measurement points. Therefore, the findings should be viewed as consistent with, rather than definitive evidence of, the proposed directional pathways. Moreover, the estimated indirect effect should be interpreted as a temporal association within the confines of the two-wave analytical framework, rather than as definitive evidence of a fully established longitudinal causal mediation process. In addition, the high stability of life satisfaction across the two time points (r = 0.81) indicates a substantial trait-like component, potentially reducing the variance available for explanation by the mediator after accounting for autoregressive effects. Accordingly, the practical significance of the observed indirect effect should be approached with caution. Employing multi-wave longitudinal or experimental designs could provide more robust insights into causal mechanisms. Furthermore, although data on objective trauma severity -such as housing damage and bereavement- were collected, these indicators were not included as covariates in the structural equation model. Given that disaster-related material loss and bereavement are linked to post-disaster psychological outcomes, the absence of these variables should be considered when interpreting the results. Objective trauma severity and bereavement could potentially act as confounding factors that influence both the mediator and the outcome variable. Future research should aim to incorporate such objective indicators as covariates to enhance the examination of longitudinal pathways in post-disaster contexts.

Finally, the study's exclusive reliance on self-report measures introduces the potential for shared method variance and unmeasured third-variable influences. While the longitudinal design alleviates some concerns, alternative explanations, such as stable personality traits or unmeasured resilience factors, may partially account for the observed associations. Future research could benefit from incorporating multi-method assessments or additional psychological resources to achieve a more comprehensive understanding of post-disaster adjustment processes.

Conclusions

In conclusion, this study contributes to the literature by examining the mediating role of psychological adjustment in the relationship between mindfulness and life satisfaction among young adults affected by the February 6, 2023 earthquakes. The findings indicate a temporally ordered indirect association in which earlier mindfulness is related to later life satisfaction through the intervening role of psychological adjustment. While these results should be interpreted with caution due to the two-wave design and the specific time lag between measurements, they nonetheless offer meaningful insights into the role of psychological adjustment as a linking mechanism in post-disaster contexts. Within these methodological constraints, the findings highlight psychological adjustment as a key pathway through which mindfulness is associated with life satisfaction following large-scale traumatic events. Moreover, they underscore the potential value of mindfulness-based practices and psychological counseling interventions in supporting resilience, being related to improved life satisfaction, and facilitating recovery after disasters. In this regard, the study provides both theoretical and practical implications for the development of evidence-based psychological support and intervention programs in post-disaster settings.

Authors’ contributions

Esra Teke is the sole author of this work and was responsible for the study conception, design, data collection, analysis, and manuscript writing.

Funding

The authors declare that they have no financial interests and did not receive support from any organization for the submitted work.

The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Data availability

The data that support the findings of this study are available on request from the corresponding author. The data are not publicly available due to privacy restrictions.

Declarations

Ethics approval and consent to participate

All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards. Prior to the research, ethics committee approval (38/06) was obtained from Malatya Turgut Özal University Ethics Committee, Türkiye. The study also complied with data protection standards applicable to web-based surveys; no identifying information was collected, responses were anonymous, and all data were stored securely on password-protected servers.

Written consent was obtained from all participants included in the study. Participation was entirely voluntary, and no compensation or incentives of any kind were provided to participants.

Consent for publication

Not Applicable.

Competingg interests

The authors declare no competing interests.