| Approximate Period |
400-1859 |
1859-early 20th century |
1930s-1970s |
2000s-present |
| View of Nature |
Pre-established harmony; divine creation |
Nature as competitive and shaped by natural
selection |
Nature governed by genes and selective
pressures |
Nature as dynamic, multilevel, and
co-constructed |
| Unit of Evolution |
Fixed species |
Populations |
Genes |
Organisms + environments + symbioses
(holobionts) |
| Main Mechanism of Change |
Divine plan / adaptation as proof of God |
Natural selection acting on individual
variation |
Mutation + recombination + natural selection |
Selection + plasticity + epigenetics + niche
construction + symbiosis |
| Origin of Variation |
Not applicable |
Random variation (not explained) |
Random genetic mutations |
Genetic, epigenetic, behavioral, and ecological
variation |
| Heredity |
Essentialist / fixist |
Not fully understood |
Mendelian inheritance / population genetics |
Genetic + epigenetic + ecological and symbiotic
transmission |
| Evolutionary Time |
Static |
Gradual and continuous |
Slow and incremental |
Can be rapid, discontinuous, with reversals or
pulses |
| Level of Selection |
Not applicable |
Individuals |
Genes / individuals / populations |
Multiple levels: genes, individuals, groups,
ecosystems |
| Adaptation |
Intentional design |
Result of natural selection |
Functional optimization through selection |
May also arise through plasticity, symbiosis,
exaptation |
| Organism-Environment Relationship |
Passive and fixed environment |
Environment selects the fittest |
Environmental pressure on the organism |
Organisms and environments co-construct each
other |
| Role of Development |
Not recognized |
Ignored |
Ignored (genes seen a independent of
development) |
Central: evo-devo, epigenetics, phenotypic
plasticity |
| Importance of Symbiosis |
Unknown |
Ignored |
Marginal |
Crucial: holobionts, horizontal gene transfer,
virome |
| Thermodynamic Dimension |
Not applicable |
Not addressed |
Not addressed |
Organisms as open, far-from-equilibrium systems
(dissipative structures); continuous energy flux and entropy
export |
| Key Thinkers |
William Paley |
Charles Darwin, Alfred Wallace |
Dobzhansky, Mayr, Simpson, Haldane |
Laland, Jablonka, West-Eberhard, Gilbert, Noble,
Odling-Smee |
