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. 2026 Feb 20;17:1699610. doi: 10.3389/fneur.2026.1699610

Figure 2.

Flowchart illustrating the relationship between the peripheral immune system, neuroimaging phenotypes, and clinical or cognitive outcomes. Left panel lists immune markers, cytokines, cell phenotypes, and viral measures; the central panel describes neuroimaging findings with sMRI, DTI, fMRI, MRS, and PET modalities; the right panel details clinical outcomes such as diagnostic categories, cognitive domains, functional status, and disease progression. Arrows indicate interactions and outcomes along the pathway.

Integrative biomarker framework for NeuroHIV: Linking peripheral immunity, neuroimaging phenotypes, and clinical outcomes. This conceptual figure illustrates the proposed integrative framework linking peripheral immune dysregulation, multi-modal neuroimaging phenotypes, and clinical outcomes in people living with HIV. The arrows indicate hypothesized directions of influence. The framework highlights the need for future studies to move beyond associative analyses toward causal integrative models for improved diagnosis and prognosis.