Table 2.

Thematic analysis outcomes

Themes	Sub-themes	Study	Key findings
Psychological Intimate Partner Violence	Public humiliation	Yount et al. [13] Choudhary et al. [35]	Between 9% and 15% of women reported lifetime exposure to specific forms of psychological IPV; 27% reported lifetime exposure to any psychological IPV.
	Insult & Degradation	Satheesan et al. [17]	Psychological IPV linked to lower marital quality and higher psychological distress in women facing infertility.
	Fear &Intimidation	Deuba et al. [6] Pun et al. [25]	Alcohol use by husbands and sex refusal led to fear-inducing behaviour and violence against young pregnant women. Both violence and fear was significantly associated with giving birth to a preterm infant
	Threat & Expulsion	Gautam & Jeong [1] Atilla & Akkus [31] Deuba et al. [6] Satheesan et al. [17]	IPV produces long-term psychological, physical, and sexual health problems and violates women’s rights.
	Emotional abuse	Akyüz et al. [11] Gibbs et al. [14] T.W.Leung et al. [24]	Emotional abuse is prevalent, linked to depression and low marital satisfaction among Turkish women. Majority (61.5%) of the victims suffered from emotional or verbal abuse
Physical Intimate Partner Violence	Slap & strike	Yount et al. [13] A. Sis Celik, N. Kırca [32] Choudhary et al. [35]	29% reported lifetime exposure to any physical IPV. 30% expressed to be injured as a result of the violence
	Shoving	Pun et al. [25] Yount et al. [13]	IPV is a risk factor for poor maternal and neonatal health outcomes.
	Punching	Al Mamun et al. [26] Choudhary et al. [35]	IPV prevalence remains high among garment workers, links to workplace stress and partner control
	Beating	Adhikari & Tamang [3] Choudhary et al. [35] H.E. Ardabily et al. [12]	58% of married women experienced sexual coercion; physical force commonly used to assert control. 8% of infertile women experienced injuries.
	Chocking	Bondade et al. [15]	Infertile women reported higher rates of physical IPV and associated psychiatric morbidity.
	Threatening	Gibbs et al. [14]	Economic interventions are key to reducing IPV, which often includes physical threats.
Sexual Intimate Partner Violence	Coerced sex	Adhikari & Tamang [3] Saggurti et al. [21]	About 58% of women had experienced sexual coercion by their husbands.
	Pregnancy-related abuse	Taghizadeh et al. [29]	IPV against pregnant women decreased through problem-solving training, showing strong preventive potential.
Economic Coercion	Financial control/dependency	Yount et al. [13] Bondade et al. [15] Pun et al. [25] Clark et al. [28] Bourey et al., [16] Deuba et al. [6]	3%–21% of women reported economic coercion such as being denied financial autonomy. Infertile women reported higher IPV and psychiatric morbidity due to dependency. IPV is a risk factor for poor maternal and neonatal outcomes, particularly in low-income settings. Economic interventions and empowerment programs effectively reduce IPV. Changes in financial autonomy and freedom of movement were reported by 38% and 44% of the women.
	Dowry-related abuse	Shah More et  al. [20] Bourey et al. [16]	Consultations for IPV often related to dowry demands; economic expectations used to justify abuse.
	Employment restrictions	Dhungel et al. [4] Al Mamun et al. [26] Krishnan et al. [30] Shah More et al. [20]	Working women in factories experienced harassment and economic coercion tied to gender roles. Workplace IPV is linked to economic vulnerability among garment workers. Empowerment of women (and mothers-in-law) can reduce IPV during pregnancy. Consultations for IPV were tied to economic factors like dowry demands.
Socio-Cultural Factors	Patriarchy & gender norms	Sheikhan et al. [9] Silwal et al. [8] Adhikari & Tamang [3]	Cultural beliefs reinforcing male dominance and stigma toward infertile women sustain IPV. 58% of married women experienced sexual coercion; physical force used to assert control.
	Victim blaming	Leung et al. [24]	Women reporting IPV had reduced quality of life and often faced judgment from health professionals.
	Religious influences	Deuba et al. [6]	Alcohol use and sex refusal fuelled IPV; influenced by cultural and possibly religious values.
	Gendered family roles	Yount et al. [13] Sheikhan et al. [9] Satheesan et al. [17] Gautam & Jeong [1] Atilla & Akkus [31]	Lifetime exposure to psychological and physical IPV often stems from traditional roles. Infertility and IPV linked to poor marital quality and increased psychological distress. IPV leads to physical, sexual, and reproductive health issues, and violates human rights. Elder housewives face emotional control and neglect due to traditional expectations.
Legal & Institutional Factors	Weak justice systems	Clark et al. [28] Saggurti et al. [21]	Legal reforms and community-based strategies can effectively reduce IPV incidence. RCT shows interventions can reduce IPV through structured community engagement.
	Limited support services	Deuba et al. [6]	Lack of counselling and police responsiveness discourages IPV reporting.
	Access to justice	Deuba et al. [6] Nongrum et al. [7]	IPV is underreported due to stigma and lack of police responsiveness. Women in conflict-affected or remote areas struggle to access protection.
	Institutional responsiveness	Taghizadeh et al. [29] Kataoka et al. [27] Shah More et al. [20]	Training in problem-solving skills effectively reduced IPV during pregnancy. IPV screening improved with self-administered questionnaires in clinical settings. IPV related to dowry and cyber harassment indicates gaps in institutional response.
Demographic Variations	Rural vs. urban disparity	Bourey et al. Nongrum et al. [16]	Rural women face normalized abuse due to tradition, while urban women are more exposed to cyber-harassment.
	Conflict zones	Gibbs et al. [14]	High IPV rates among displaced women; compounded by lack of institutional protection.
Emerging Forms of Intimate partner Violence	Cyber violence	Shah More et al. [20]	Digital harassment is increasingly reported among young and unmarried women in urban slums
	Workplace violence	Al Mamun et al. [26]	Workplace IPV is linked with economic vulnerability and informal labour settings
	Elder neglect	Atilla & Akkus [31]	Elder housewives in patriarchal settings experience neglect and emotional control.