Table 2.

Neural targets for empathy modulation.

Empathy component	Primary neural targets	Neurochemical systems	Interventions most likely to modulate
Affective resonance	Anterior insula, ACC, amygdala	Oxytocin, serotonin (5-HT1A)	LIFU, intranasal oxytocin, mindfulness training
Cognitive perspective-taking	rTPJ, mPFC, STS	Dopamine (mesocortical)	tDCS/TMS over rTPJ, VR perspective-taking, compassion training
Prosocial motivation	Nucleus accumbens, VTA	Dopamine, serotonin (NAc)	MDMA-assisted therapy, reward-based behavioral paradigms
Affective regulation	vmPFC, dlPFC, ACC	Serotonin, GABA	Mindfulness, compassion-based therapy, neurofeedback
Empathic accuracy	rTPJ, AI, temporal pole	Oxytocin (context-dependent)	Social skills training, VR simulation, tDCS

ACC = anterior cingulate cortex; rTPJ = right temporoparietal junction; mPFC = medial prefrontal cortex; STS = superior temporal sulcus; VTA = ventral tegmental area; NAc = nucleus accumbens; vmPFC = ventromedial prefrontal cortex; dlPFC = dorsolateral prefrontal cortex; AI = anterior insula; LIFU = low-intensity focused ultrasound; tDCS = transcranial direct current stimulation; TMS = transcranial magnetic stimulation; VR = virtual reality.