. 2026 Mar 10;17:1758831. doi: 10.3389/fimmu.2026.1758831

Table 3.

Effects of intranasal natural products on inflammatory cytokines.

Inflammatory cytokines	Author, year	Treatment group	P	Trend	Source	Unit
TNF-α	Wang 2024a (28)	18.93	<0.01	↓	Alveolar lavage fluid	pg/ml
	Wang 2024b (28)	6	<0.05	↓	Alveolar lavage fluid	pg/ml
	Liu 2018(1) (36)	28.94	<0.05	↓	Serum	pg/ml
	Sun 2021 (32)	113.98	<0.01	↓	Lung tissue	pg/ml
	Qiu 2021 (26)	941.36^#	>0.05	↓	Lung tissue	pg/g
	Kim 2015a (35)	4.44^#	<0.05	↑	Lung tissue	Fold of control
	Kim 2015b (35)	4.67^#	<0.05	↑	Lung tissue	Fold of control
IL-6	Liu 2018(1) (23)	56.62	<0.05	↓	Serum	pg/ml
	Sun 2021 (32)	78.38	<0.01	↓	Lung tissue	pg/ml
	Qiu 2021 (26)	4582.48^#	>0.05	↓	Lung tissue	pg/g
	Mao 2021 (18)	8.77^#	<0.05	↓	Serum	pg/ml
IL-4	Liu 2018(2)a (24)	97.14	>0.05	↓	Serum	pg/ml
IL-4	Liu 2018(2)b (24)	1568.14	>0.05	↓	Lung tissue	ng/g
IL-5	Liu 2019 (25)	244.66	<0.05	↓	Serum	pg/ml
IL-1β	Mao 2021 (18)	7.77^#	<0.001	↓	Serum	pg/ml
	Wang 2024a (28)	0.14	<0.01	↓	Alveolar lavage fluid	pg/ml
	Wang 2024b (28)	0.17	>0.05	↓	Alveolar lavage fluid	pg/ml
IFN-α	Liu 2017 (22)	21.81	<0.05	↑	Serum	pg/ml
IFN-β	Kim 2015a (35)	6.2^#	<0.01	↑	Lung tissue	Fold of control
	Kim 2015b (35)	6.6^#	<0.01	↑	Lung tissue	Fold of control
	Liu 2017 (22)	155.17	<0.05	↑	Serum	pg/ml
IFN-γ	Liu 2018(2)a (24)	21.94	>0.05	↑	Serum	pg/ml
	Liu 2018(2)b (24)	344.73	<0.05	↑	Lung tissue	ng/g
	Wang 2024a (28)	15.36	<0.01	↓	Alveolar lavage fluid	pg/ml
	Wang 2024b (28)	20.61	<0.01	↓	Alveolar lavage fluid	pg/ml
IL-12	Kim 2015a (35)	7.15^#	<0.01	↑	Lung tissue	Fold of control
IL-12	Kim 2015b (35)	7.16^#	<0.01	↑	Lung tissue	Fold of control

#Data sourced from Origin 2024.

Wang 2024a: Patchoul intervention; Wang 2024b: Atractylodes intervention; Kim 2015a: PR8 virus modeling; Kim 2015b: CA04 virus modeling; Liu 2018(2)a: Source from serum; Liu 2018(2)b: Source from Lung tissue.

"↓" indicates a downregulatory effect. "↑" indicates an upregulatory effect.