Abstract
Background
The consumption of mobile screen time is increasing day by day. When a person engages with the mobile phone for an extended period of time, it depicts addiction and escapes from the surroundings, leading to phubbing behavior. Therefore, this study investigates mobile phone addiction and how phubbing behavior affects psychological well-being. In addition, this paper examines the moderating role of self-determination theory in the aforesaid relationship.
Methods
To examine the cause-and-effect relationship among the examined variables, PLS-SEM is used as a statistical tool for analysis. The data was collected from 450 participants via a survey through mall-intercept method, using a non-probability purposive sampling technique.
Results
The results exhibited that mobile phone addiction is a significant determinant of phubbing behavior and well-being. The results also indicated that phubbing behavior negatively influences the well-being of the mobile phone user. It was also found that need satisfaction theory moderated the relationship between mobile phone usage, phubbing behavior, and well-being. The role of gender and time spent on mobile phones as control variables was also found to be significant.
Originality
This current study offers insights into mobile phone addiction, phubbing behavior, and well-being, offering theoretical and practical implications for digital health, underpinned by the need satisfaction theory on the mobile phone user.
Supplementary Information
The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s40359-026-04143-y.
Keywords: Mobile phone addiction, Phubbing behaviour, Well Being, Self Determination theory, Need Satisfaction, A-C-E framework
Introduction
The rapid evolution of technology is truly astounding, with its reflective impact becoming gradually undeniable in every facet of our lives. This rapid proliferation of mobile phones, specifically smartphones, has intensely changed our social and personal space [1]. The mobile usage penetration rate globally has been phenomenal, as billions of individuals use mobile phones to perform routine tasks. Mobile phones have become integral to daily and professional lives [2]. Technology advancements have significantly enhanced users' efficiency and made our lives more convenient [3]. However, these advancements have provided numerous benefits that influence human behaviour and psychological well-being [4]. The widespread adoption of smartphones in daily life led to a rapid shift in social-attitudinal behaviour. Such a drastic change impacted mental well-being and society at large. While smartphones make it easy to connect anytime and anywhere, it will simultaneously cause issues such as mobile addiction, overuse, and changes in social behaviour.
In a short period, addiction to mobile phones has become extensive and has influenced people of every age group, culture, and geographic region [5]. Mobile addiction refers to people's habitual and excessive use of mobile devices, often at the expense of personal life, social relationships, and professional responsibilities [6]. Past studies have shown that mobile phone addiction can lead to concerning negative outcomes, including social isolation [7], reduced face-to-face interactions, sleep disturbances [8], and mental health problems such as anxiety and depression [9]. The issue of mobile phone addiction is now alarming and has been observed globally. The regular usage of mobile phones impacts distraction and the overall well-being of users.
Phubbing is the outcome of mobile phone addiction, and it increases attention issues. Phubbing ignores real-life social interactions and prioritizes mobile phone usage [10, 11]. Such behavior can negatively impact interpersonal relationships, decrease communication quality, and create emotional distance between people [12]. Phubbing behavior increases as mobile addiction increases, affecting people in their social environment, including the workplace [13] and homes [14]. This phubbing depicts the mobile technology's paradox: On the one hand, it connects people to the virtual world, but at the same time, it separates them from their actual surroundings [15]. The underlying cause is intrinsic motivation, which drives mobile phone addiction and phubbing behaviour [12].
Intrinsic motivation can manifest as a desire for social validation, entertainment, autonomy, and expressiveness in the context of working employees' mobile usage [16, 17]. The inner motivation helps to understand why some people are more addicted to their mobile devices than others [12]. While many external factors also contribute to mobile dependency, intrinsic motivation among them may offer deeper perceptions into mobile addiction's psychological and emotional drivers and phubbing behavior. Mobile addiction with phubbing seriously affects the users' psychological and mental well-being [18]. Therefore, efforts toward reducing the harmful effects should be made. Davey et al. [19] suggest mobile phone usage may be limited by intrinsic positive motivations. It can be used to prompt personal growth, to promote well-being as learners, and to foster social connections. Therefore, we have a need to understand such a fine line that separates addiction for mobile from wellness, precisely with motives of mobile usage behavior.
This piece of research aims to explore the unexplored relationship between mobile phone usage addiction, phubbing behavior of an individual, intrinsic motivation, and its effect on an individual's mental and psychological well-being. Self-determination theory is applied to understand the role of intrinsic motivation in satisfying individuals' desired needs. SDT states that every human being has three basic psychological needs: autonomy (the ability to control their own decisions), competence (the ability to feel effective and efficient), and relatedness (the state of being related and connected with others). When these basic psychological needs are met through mobile usage, choosing our content and apps without restrictions (autonomy), mastering the new digital efficacy (competence), staying socially linked on digital platforms (relatedness), users experience intrinsic motivation to continue using their mobile phones. When mobile users excessively use their mobile phones to fulfil basic needs, resulting in phubbing behaviour and negatively impacting psychological well-being.
This research paper attempts to empirically measure the interlinked concepts and contribute to the ongoing discourse on the impact of technology on human behavior and mental and psychological well-being. The previous studies independently explored phubbing, mobile phone addiction, and SDT to predict mobile phone usage. This research paper attempts to fill the gap by examining the SDT and its components with phubbing, psychological well-being, and mobile phone addiction. Using the A-C-E framework, this research proposes that mobile phone usage addiction is triggered by convenience and escape. There is a paucity of studies that examine the relationship between phubbing, well-being, and mobile addiction with the intervention of autonomy, competence, and relatedness of users. This study helps fill that gap by providing empirical evidences, supporting educational programs and designing interventions, promoting health initiatives, and endorsing more balanced interaction with technology.
The number of smartphones and internet penetration in India has increased tremendously in the recent past. By 2023, it had over one billion users of smartphones making it a major market in the world. The number of internet users and mobile connections are approximately 751 million and 1.12 billion respectively, and the internet penetration is over 50 percent (Digital 2024). Internet usage has increased phenomenally, monthly data traffic per user amounted to approximately 20 GB in March 2024, which is 0.27 GB in 2014–15. Study has shown the Indians spend about 90 min online daily on the internet, whilst industry research claims that online time totals more than six hours on a day. Such availability of smartphones and constant internet connection create the conditions of such phenomena as excessive mobile use and phubbing, which may explain the importance of the study of their impact on psychological health.
This research study is divided into eight sections. We draw theoretical development and review the literature on all the proposed relationships to show a conceptual association of all variables. Then, in the next section, the research methodology is proposed and empirically tested for all the proposed relationships. The following section discusses and offers implications (theoretical and managerial) with limitations that lead to future perspectives.
Theoretical background and conceptual development
Self-determination theory: need satisfaction and intrinsic motivation
According to Ryan and Deci [20], self-determination theory (SDT) states that all individuals are intrinsically motivated by three innate basic psychological needs: competence, autonomy, and relatedness that predict well-being [21]. Self-determination theory suggests the perspective of need satisfaction of an individual, which includes autonomy needs, competence needs, and relatedness needs. Self-Determination Theory splits into two distinct concepts, i.e., need satisfaction and intrinsic motivation. Need satisfaction describes how people feel satisfied when their psychological needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness are met. When needs are fulfilled, individuals often want to participate in an activity for pleasure alone, without needing an external reward. If users can freely choose what they use, learn new functions, and build friendships online, they tend to use their phones more out of interest. As a result, this need satisfaction contributes to people becoming addicted to phones and neglecting the people around them for their screens.
It is important to recognize that self-determination is essential in understanding an individual's phubbing behavior and psychological and mental well-being. In the phubbing behavior of users, relatedness needs are always left unfulfilled. Phubbing involves less physical interaction, reducing social connection and feelings of loneliness or rejection. The absence of social engagement and less communication leads to an oversight in satisfying the need for relatedness, an essential feature of an individual's emotional and psychological well-being [17]. The habitual nature of phubbing raises a psychological dependency on mobile devices, replacing meaningful social contact with superficial interactions [12]. This dependency carries on to emotionally displease, furthermore, it intensifies stress, and sparks driven actions which deteriorate mental well-being. The SDT, along with its basic psychological needs, helps to understand the impact of mobile usage addiction [22] as well as the phubbing behaviour of an individual on their psychological well-being and mental well-being [23].
A-C-E (Anonymity, Convenience, and Escape) framework
The Anonymity, convenience, and escape (ACE) framework is proposed by Young et al. [24] to explain internet addiction. This ACE framework is a psychological model that explains the factors that lead to the excessive use of technology. This research study presents the ACE framework's theoretical grounds as a basis for mobile usage behavior for "phubbing" and its impact on individual well-being [25]. Anonymity is a sense of not being seen when you use digital devices, which decreases the amount of social interaction and decreases inhibitions. The anonymity that all digital platforms offer encourages overuse of the digital world, turning it into an addiction to smart mobile phone usage. Anonymity also provides the feeling of limited responsibility, which may lead the individual to phubbing, i.e., ignoring the person and staying focused on their mobile without paying heed to the consequences, such as loneliness, anxiety, and social costs [26].
Thus, anonymity enhances compulsive mobile phone usage, which may negatively affect psychological and mental well-being [27]. Second, convenience refers to the ease of access. Mobile phones offer direct access to world through wireless internet, and various applications keeping users engaged. Such engagements create mobile usage, a continuous source of distraction and interference in social interactions. Hales et al. [28] investigated that mobile usage addiction increased by enabling real-time access to digital content or digital platforms, leading to phubbing. The convenience of mobile phone usage stimulates impulsive phone-checking behavior and detachment from the real social world. As a result, this overuse of mobile phones and phubbing behavior harms individuals' psychological and mental well-being [29]. Finally, escape means an individual uses mobile phones to escape from boredom, anxiety, stress, and life challenges. Here, this context of escape provides a mechanism where individuals use their mobile phone in case of any real-world pressure and social discomfort, and leads towards phubbing and mobile addiction. The overuse of mobile phones diversely affects an individual's well-being and reduces the level of satisfaction. Hence, the ACE framework is suitable for this piece of research and aligns with the dynamics of this paper.
Hypotheses development
Mobile phone usage addiction and phubbing behaviour
Mobile phone usage addiction refers to an individual's excessive smartphone use, which negatively impacts their life due to an inability to regulate their behavior. Mobile phone addiction has become a menace for society and is disharmonizing the fabric of families [4]. The rapid development of information and communication technologies has contributed to the rise of social media, e-games, and smartphone addiction [6, 30]. Those addicted to smartphones often use social media excessively, for entertainment (such as watching videos or listening to music), and for playing e-games. This addiction raises the habit of phubbing, the act of ignoring others while using a mobile phone. Phubbing is also attributed to age, social anxiety, and ICT services owned among mobile phone users [31]. Mobile phone addiction has been identified as a key factor in the occurrence of phubbing [32]. In urban cities, prior studies investigated the rural–urban differences and showed the adverse effects of mobile addiction on individuals' behaviour [33]. Strong family ties could adversely affect mobile phone addiction [34]. Recent studies further support the connection between smartphone addiction and phubbing behavior, which can harm social cohesion [7, 35], increase peer isolation, and negatively influence perceptions of social interactions [12]. Based on the above discussion, the following hypothesis is proposed:
H1: Mobile phone usage addiction significantly and positively influences phubbing behaviour
Mobile phone usage addiction and psychological well-being
The excessive use of smartphones led to the phenomenon of "phubbing"—snubbing someone in a social context by habitually directing one's attention to the phone rather than paying attention to the present person [11]. In the past few years, adults and youth commonly could be seen meeting in small groups, entirely consumed by their smartphones,couples sitting at restaurants, unconscious to the presence of each other and everything else besides the screens of their involvement in mobile phones; families in spending their personal family time together ostensibly consumed by what they might not be seeing on their smartphones, rather than in conversation; and business persons [36], among others, the same behavior seen in the workplace [13]. This behavior has been referred as phubbing. The increase in phubbing behaviors have raised concerns about the possible impacts on users' well-being [5]. The smartphone used during a conversation interferes with connecting with the other person. It decreases the attention paid to the conversation, which brings distress to the phubee, possibly psychologically affecting well-being [27, 37] and mental well-being [29, 38]. Hence, an in-depth understanding and insight are required to maintain proper psychological and mental well-being.
H2: Mobile phone usage addiction significantly and negatively influences mental and psychological well-being
Phubbing behavior and psychological and mental well-being
Prior studies suggested that phubbing behavior may be negatively associated with psychological well-being and mental well-being, although these findings are based on social engagement and real-life interactions. This behavior has recently been the focus of increasing research interest since it relates to the effects on an individual's psychological and mental well-being [29]. Harmon and Duffy [1] tried to understand the smartphone usage habits of the younger generation, known as millennials, who may be at a higher risk of developing smartphone-related addictive behaviors such as nomophobia and phubbing. The result of the study on the matter has shown that problematic smartphone usage correlates positively with anxiety, fear of missing out, and need for touch. In contrast, it negatively correlates with depression [39]. It has been termed a "phubbing phenomenon," a "wildfire" that is invading our social communication and life since the growth of mobile phone users is very rapid, especially in developing countries. Therefore, such behavior has been brought to the attention of sociologists, psychologists, and psychiatrists, as it poses potential risks to individual mental well-being [5, 30]. In addition to this, internet use, social media, and platforms like Facebook are increasingly being used. Usmani et al. [40] found that for this reason, 20% of adolescents have demonstrated mental well-being due to excessive smartphone use. Regular phubbing can reduce the sense of relatedness and social support as the fundamental elements of psychological and mental well-being among individuals. When conversation is constantly interrupted by the use of smartphones, people might feel excluded, lonely, and dissatisfied with relationships, which are some of the risk factors to worse well-being. Researchers have continuously found that greater phubbing levels are linked to increased distress, anxiety, and depressive symptoms and reduced life satisfaction, which proves that phubbing is not a social nuisance only but can be a predictor of mental health outcomes. Hence, we propose:
H3: Phubbing behaviour significantly and negatively influences mental and psychological well-being
Need satisfaction as a moderator
Self-determination theory is a theoretical framework applied in this research paper to understand the dynamics of mobile phone usage addiction and the well-being of an individual. Self-determination theory postulates that individuals have three essential psychological needs—autonomy, competence, and relatedness—that, when these needs are satisfied, lead to well-being and healthy behaviors [21]. As per Xiao and Zheng [17], if these needs are not effectively met, individuals may engage in compensatory behaviors, such as excessive mobile phone use, leading to problematic outcomes like phubbing and adversely affecting their well-being [32]. Here, SDT moderates the relationship between mobile phone usage addiction and phubbing behavior by explaining how individuals fulfill their basic psychological needs (autonomy, competence, and relatedness). Phubbing means escaping real-world problems and social interactions in favor of mobile phone usage to fulfill desired needs at our convenience. The role of SDT is to measure the impact of need satisfaction fulfillment on individual behavior, psychological well-being, and mental well-being.
In this study, mobile phone usage addiction and psychological well-being and mental well-being are moderated by SDT. Determining mobile phone usage regulation relies on the individual's need for satisfaction [25]. Individuals who experience low autonomy, competence, or relatedness in a society are more likely to engage in compulsive mobile usage as they actively seek external reinforcement through social media platforms or other digital platforms [41], ultimately resulting in a decline in psychological well-being [23]. Davey et al. [19] investigated that mobile phone usage addiction in individuals may intensify the state of mind, such as anxiety, stress, and loneliness, and it adversely affects mental health [39]. On the contrary, Zhang et al. [42] found that when psychological needs are effectively gratified, individuals are expected to regulate healthier mobile phone usage, experience fewer addiction-related indications, and maintain better mental well-being as well. Therefore, the SDT framework proposes that satisfying these vital needs can shield against the unfavourable effects of mobile phone addiction, promoting psychological resilience.
H4: The Relationship between Mobile phone usage addiction and mental and psychological well-being is moderated by SDT.
H5: The Relationship between Mobile phone usage addiction and phubbing behaviour is moderated by SDT.
Figure 1, presents the study's proposed model and the relationships examined in the study. The mobile phone use addiction, phubbing behaviour, well-being and need satisfaction (SDT) are presented in Fig. 1. We also propose to examine the role of control variables (income, age, gender, time spent on smartphone). As these variables may influence mobile phone usage patterns and well-being. Exploring their effects allows for a clearer understanding of the core relationships in the model, minimizing potential confounds [43, 44].
Fig. 1.
Hypothesized model
Research methodology
Participants
The proposed hypotheses were tested using the responses collected from the respondents residing in India's National Capital Region (NCR). The data was collected using a non-probability purposive sampling technique. Non-probability Purposive sampling was employed to purposely target individuals demonstrating mobile phone use behaviors appropriate to phubbing. This method allowed efficient access to information-rich participants suited to the research's objectives. The participants for the survey were recruited from four Malls located in the NCR region, and the mall intercept survey method was utilized. The participants above 18 years of age who were using smartphones were eligible to participate. The minimum age of 18 years was set to ensure that all respondents could provide informed consent as legal adults under Indian law, thereby simplifying the ethical and administrative procedures for data collection. The instrument utilized for the survey was composed of the following sections, (i) informed consent, (ii) demographic information (age, gender, income, time spent on smartphone, etc.), and (iii) items of the variables/constructs (smartphone usage; self-determination theory; phubbing behavior; well-being). A total of 33 items were incorporated into the instrument to record the participants' responses. The response was recorded using a five-point Likert-type scale (Anchors: −1 = Strongly Disagree; 2 = Disagree; 3 = Neutral; 4 = Agree; 5 = Strongly Agree). The scales were pre-tested with a pilot sample of 25 participants to confirm precision and consistency, with no significant issues identified. The use of validated scales and minor adaptations in language ensured robust measurement of the constructs while aligning with the study's urban Indian context. The source of the variables/constructs utilized in the study is presented in Table 1. Consent to participate was obtained from all of the participants in the survey. The respondents on average spent 10–15 min completing the survey.
Table 1.
Source of instrument
| Construct/Variable | Statements | Source |
|---|---|---|
| Mobile phone addiction | I am always preoccupied with my mobile phone | Chotpitayasunondh and Douglas [45] |
| Using my mobile phone keeps me relaxed | ||
| I feel restless or irritable when attempting to cut down mobile phone use | ||
| I can’t stay even for a moment without a mobile phone | ||
| I am not able to control myself from frequent use of mobile phone | ||
| Phubbing Behaviour | I am always busy with my mobile phone when I’m with my friends | Karadag [11] |
| I don’t think that I annoy my partner when I’m busy with my mobile phone | ||
| My phone is always within my reach | ||
| The time allocated to social, personal or professional activities decreases because of my mobile phone | ||
| I feel incomplete without my mobile phone | ||
| Self Determination Theory | When I am with my mobile phone, I feel like a competent person | La Guardia et al. [21] |
| When I am with my mobile phone, I feel loved and cared about | ||
| When I am with my mobile phone, I have a say in what happens, and I can voice my opinion | ||
| When I am with my mobile phone, I feel very capable and effective | ||
| When I am with my mobile phone, I feel a lot of closeness and intimacy | ||
| When I am with my mobile phone, I feel like a competent person | ||
|
Well-Being (Mental and Psychological) |
Mental Well-Being |
Shah et al. [38] Ostic et al. [32] |
| I’ve been feeling optimistic about the future | ||
| I’ve been feeling useful | ||
| I’ve been feeling relaxed | ||
| I’ve been dealing with problems well | ||
| I’ve been thinking clearly | ||
| I’ve been feeling close to other people | ||
| Psychological Well-Being | ||
| I lead a meaningful life with the help of internet using mobile phone | ||
| My social relationships are supportive and rewarding in internet using mobile phone | ||
| I am engaged and interested in my daily activities on internet using mobile phone | ||
| I actively contribute to the happiness and well-being of others on internet using mobile phone | ||
| I am optimistic about my future with the help of internet using mobile phone | ||
| I lead a purposeful life with the help of internet using mobile phone | ||
| Source: Compiled by authors | ||
The responses were recorded from 489 respondents, and 450 were deemed valid. 11 responses were excluded as they were incomplete. The response rate was over 90%. The rest, 28, were excluded as they were identified as outliers through Mahalanobis Distance.
Data analysis
The current study employs PLS-SEM to examine the proposed model. For the purpose, SMARTPLS 4 has been deployed. Compared with CB-SEM, PLS-SEM is not constrained by rigid data assumptions [46]. The current model consisted only of reflective indicators, with higher-order constructs (Well-Being). A repeated indicator approach was adopted to examine the model [47].
Table 2 shows that out of 450 respondents, 216 were males (48%), and 234 respondents (52%) were females. 233 respondents (51.8%) were aged between 18 and 36 years, whereas 217 respondents (48.2%) were above 36 years. The 218 respondents (48.2%) were employed by private or government organizations. At the same time, 142 respondents (31.6%) were self-employed. 55 respondents (12.2%) were students, and 35 (7.8%) were professionals.
Table 2.
Demographic profile of respondents (n = 450)
| Category | Frequency | %age |
|---|---|---|
| (n = 450) | (100%) | |
| Gender | Male (216) | 48% |
| Female (234) | 52% | |
| Age | 18 years to 36 years (233) | 51.8% |
| Above 36 years (217) | 48.2% | |
| Occupation | Employed (private/govt) (218) | 48.4% |
| Self-Employed (142) | 31.6% | |
| Student (55) | 12.2% | |
| Professional (35) | 7.8% | |
| Screen time on Smartphones | Less than 3 h weekly (48) | 10.7 |
| 3 h to 6 h weekly (341) | 75.8% | |
| More than 6 h weekly (61) | 13.6% | |
| Education | High School (27) | 6.0%% |
| Graduate (283) | 62.9% | |
| Post Graduate (105) | 23.3% | |
| Other (35) | 7.8% |
Source: Compiled by Authors using IBM SPSS 28.0
Tables 3 and 4 presents zero-order correlation and means, and convergent validity. The Table 3 indicates that all examined variables were strongly and positively correlated. The results indicate that need satisfaction was strongly and positively correlated with phubbing behaviour (r = 0.650). The results indicate that need satisfaction was strongly and positively correlated with well-being (r = 0.775). The results indicate that Self-Determination Theory was strongly and positively correlated with mobile phone usage (r = 0.532). The results indicate that phubbing behaviour was strongly and positively correlated with well-being (r = 0.784). The results indicate that mobile phone usage was strongly and positively correlated with phubbing behaviour (r = 0.550). The results indicate that mobile phone usage was strongly and positively correlated with well-being (r = 0.678).
Table 3.
Zero-order correlations, means (n = 450)
| (1) | (2) | (3) | (4) | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Self-Determination Theory (1) | 1 | |||
| Phubbing Behaviour (2) | 0.650** | 1 | ||
| Well-being (3) | 0.775** | 0.784** | 1 | |
| Mobile phone usage (4) | 0.532** | 0.550** | 0.678** | 1 |
| Mean (X̄) | 3.83 | 3.77 | 3.87 | 3.51 |
*p <.05
**p <.01
***p <.001
Table 4.
Loadings and convergent validity
| Items | Loadings | Cronbach’s α | C.R | AVE | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Self-Determination Theory (1) | SDT1 | 0.851 | 0.902 | 0.925 | 0.625 |
| SDT2 | 0.859 | ||||
| SDT3 | 0.762 | ||||
| SDT5 | 0.830 | ||||
| SDT5 | 0.857 | ||||
| SDT6 | 0.759 | ||||
| Phubbing Behaviour (2) | PB1 | 0.828 | 0.919 | 0.937 | 0.882 |
| PB2 | 0.862 | ||||
| PB3 | 0.873 | ||||
| PB4 | 0.933 | ||||
| PB5 | 0.851 | ||||
| Well-being (3) | 0.945 | 0.952 | 0.604 | ||
| Emotional Well-Being | EB1 | 0.870 | |||
| EB2 | 0.868 | ||||
| EB3 | 0.834 | ||||
| EB4 | 0.740 | ||||
| EB5 | 0.711 | ||||
| EB6 | 0.839 | ||||
| Mental Well-Being | MB1 | 0.823 | |||
| MB2 | 0.828 | ||||
| MB3 | 0.866 | ||||
| MB4 | 0.835 | ||||
| MB5 | 0.846 | ||||
| MB6 | 0.834 | ||||
| Mobile phone usage (4) | MBU1 | 0.789 | 0.783 | 0.947 | 0.527 |
| MBU2 | 0.721 | ||||
| MBU3 | 0.726 | ||||
| MBU4 | 0.767 | ||||
| MBU5 | 0.616 |
Source: Calculated on SMARTPLS 4, Compiled by Authors
Whereas the convergent validity of the examined variables is also established as the value of Cronbach's α for all examined variables is well above the threshold of 0.70 (Need Satisfaction = 0.902; Phubbing Behaviour = 0.919; Well-being = 0.945; Mobile phone usage = 0.783). The composite reliability for all the variables is well above the threshold of 0.70 (Need Satisfaction = 0.925; Phubbing Behaviour = 0.940; Well-being = 0.952; Mobile phone usage = 0.947). Whereas, the average variance extracted (AVE) for the examined variables/constructs was above the threshold of 0.50 (Need Satisfaction = 0.625; Phubbing Behaviour = 0.757; Well-being = 0.604; Mobile phone usage = 0.527).
Table 5 presents the relationship between mobile phone usage (MPU) and phubbing behaviour (PB). The proposed relationship was supported (β = 0.233; t = 4.61, p < 0.001, 95% CI [0.135, 0.332]).
Table 5.
Structural model results (Direct Relationships)
| Relationship | Path Coefficient | t-value | Bootstrap at 95% Confidence Level | Result | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Lower %tile | Upper %tile | p-value | ||||
| MPU—> PB | 0.233 | 4.61 | 0.135 | 0.332 | 0.000 | Supported |
| MPU—> WB | −0.220 | 2.242 | −0.345 | −0.102 | 0.001 | Supported |
| PB—> WB | −0.119 | 2.344 | −0.244 | −0.112 | 0.008 | Supported |
| Variance Explained (r2) | PB = 0.646; WB = 0.817 | |||||
| Stone-Geisser’s Q2 | MPU = 0.297; PB = 0.628; SDT = 0.538; WB = 0.539 | |||||
Source: Calculated on SMARTPLS 4, Compiled by Authors
The HTMT values represent the ratio of correlations between constructs. Discriminant validity is established as the Heterotrait-monotrait ratio (HTMT) is presented in the shaded cells of the table, which are below the threshold of 0.850. The Fornell-Larcker Criterion (in bold and diagonal values) suggests discriminant validity, as the values are greater than the square root of the AVE (refer to Table 6).
Table 6.
Heterotrait-Monotrait ratio (HTMT) and Fornell-Larcker criterion
| (1) | (2) | (3) | (4) | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Self-Determination Theory (1) | 0.821 | |||
| Phubbing Behaviour (2) | 0.850 | 0.870 | ||
| Psychological Well-being (3) | 0.816 | 0.824 | 0.826 | |
| Mobile phone usage (4) | 0.718 | 0.712 | 0.787 | 0.726 |
Source: Calculated on SMARTPLS 4, Compiled by Authors. Fornell-Larcker Criterion in bold and diagonal values.
Table 5 also presents the relationship between mobile phone usage (MPU) and well-being (WB). The proposed relationship was supported (β = −0.220; t = 2.242, p < 0.001, 95% CI [−0.345, −0.102]). Finally, the relationship between phubbing behaviour (PB) and well-being (WB) was also supported (β = −0.119; t = 2.344, p < 0.001, 95% CI [−0.244, −0.112]).
The interaction effect of need satisfaction on the relationship between MPU and PB (H4) presented in Table 7 was found to be significant (β = −0.210, t = 2.567, p = 0.011, 95% CI [−0.325, −0.095]). The negative interaction means that as need satisfaction increases, the positive effect of MPU on PB becomes weaker (Fig. 2). The interaction effect of H5 need satisfaction on the relationship between MPU and WB presented in Table 7 was found to be significant (β = −0.150, t = 2.034, p = 0.011, 95% CI [−0.260, −0.040]). A negative interaction shows that as need satisfaction increases, MPU's positive effect on well-being weakens, with strongest impact at low need satisfaction and minimal at high (Fig. 3). The analysis found that the proposed hypotheses, which examined direct and interaction effects, were supported (see Fig. 4).
Table 7.
Structural Model Results (Moderation)
| Relationship | Path Coefficient | t-value | Bootstrap at 95% Confidence Level | Result | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Lower %tile | Upper %tile | p-value | ||||
| SDT x MPU—> PB | −0.210 | 2.567 | −0.325 | −0.095 | 0.011 | Supported |
| SDT x MPU—> WB | −0.150 | 2.034 | −0.260 | −0.040 | 0.042 | Supported |
Source: Calculated on SMARTPLS 4, Compiled by Authors
Fig. 2.
Simple slope analysis (MPU*SDT- > PB)
Fig. 3.
Simple slope analysis (MPU*SDT- > WB)
Fig. 4.
Path coefficients and R-square
The influence of gender, age, occupation, screen time on smartphones, and education as control variables was also examined. It was found that only gender and time spent on mobile phone had influenced the well-being of users (β = 0.013, p = 0.010; β = −0.016, p = 0.004). The results indicate a small but significant effect.
Discussion
This study explored the relationships between mobile phone addiction, phubbing behavior, and psychological well-being, with self-determination theory (SDT) as a moderating framework. The transformation of behavior in an individual occurs so rapidly that the effects are visible in their psychological and mental well-being. This research provided new understandings of phubbing behavior, psychological well-being, and mental well-being. Firstly, H1 explored the significant relationship between mobile phone usage addiction and the phubbing behaviour of an individual. The research study's findings align with the previous studies [5–7]. Karadag et al. [15] revealed in their study that a positive correlation exists between the duration of smartphone use and phubbing behavior. Mobile phone dependence increases the level of anxiety, insomnia, and depression. Besides confirming the relationship, this study introduces a new insight: While addicted to mobile phones, participants engage less with people around them, which increases their tendency to phub. This insight improves the theory by defining one key route by which mobile phone addiction affects social relationships. From a research perspective, it means interventions addressing phubbing should help people manage their time and offer new ways to meet relatedness or competence needs.
Furthermore, H2 explored the significant relationship between mobile phone usage addiction and psychological well-being and mental well-being. Volkmer and Lermer. [48] measured that the level of well-being decreases as mobile phone addiction increases. The results are aligned with the previous studies [8, 27, 36]. Individuals' reliance on mobile phones to detach from life-related stress may unknowingly develop a dependency on their mobile device, leading to detrimental effects on their mental and psychological well-being [13]. The study suggested novel insight by exploring how, mobile phone addiction harms well-being, pointing to interruptions like poor sleep and less time spent connecting with others in person as key reasons for the decline in mental and psychological well-being. These findings deepen the understanding of mobile addiction and drive for real-world solutions.
Here, H3 measures the significant effect of phubbing behavior on psychological well-being. Our study confirms that the phubbing behavior of an individual negatively contributes to mental and psychological well-being. Surprisingly, this study does not show any significant difference and is aligned with the findings of prior literature [5, 29, 30, 32]. This piece of research, unequivocally fills the gap in previous literature by analyzing the effect of phubbing behavior on the mental well-being of individuals, which contributes to a better understanding of the complex dynamics of mobile addiction. Rather than repeating prior findings, this research points out that phubbing may make people feel isolated and decrease the quality of their well-being. Researchers use these findings to advance the theoretical understanding of phubbing as a factor of emotional disconnection. They also underline the need for practical interventions, such as workplace guidelines promoting mindful technology use or educational programs to enhance better communication habits, to lessen the adverse effects on psychological and mental well-being.
The analysis also revealed that two control variables gender and time spent on smartphones were weak yet statistically significant predictors of well-being. Females (or the gender group with higher values) experienced lower well-being in comparison to other people, and those who used the smartphone more frequently on a daily basis were linked to lower well-being by a margin. These effects, though minor, suggest that demographic factors and patterns of usage may have a bearing on the way people will experience the psychological effects of extreme smartphone use and phubbing. This corroborates previous studies that indicate gender disparity in technology adoption and the adverse impact of excessive screen time on the psychological wellbeing.
Additionally, the presence of predictive moderative effects of need satisfaction (SDT) factors on phubbing behavior was investigated in this research. The result of the study revealed that autonomy, competence, and relatedness had significant predictive effects. The analysis determined that basic psychological needs like autonomy, competence, and relatedness significantly influence the interaction level with technology and social contacts [17]. It is essential to fulfil our basic psychological needs. When these needs go unmet, individuals are more likely to develop mobile addiction [41], which can have a negative impact on their well-being [23]. This can lead to phubbing to fulfil their needs through anonymity, convenience, and escapism i.e., A.C.E framework [24]. Findings of this study suggested that interventions should not only limit screen time but also build real-world opportunities for need fulfilment: like autonomy, offering choice-based group activities, Competence- skills to enhance efficiency or goal-oriented tasks, and relatedness- peer-support networks or community events. Such changes satisfy core needs and reduce the compulsion to turn to mobile phone usage during social interactions.
Theoretical implications
Theoretical implications of the proposed research model suggested that it serves as an explanation for how addiction to using mobile phones associates with phubbing behaviour, mental along with psychological well-being via examining the moderating role of need satisfaction (SDT), which would increase our comprehension of how basic psychological needs influence technology-dependent behaviour along with its psychological outcome..
Autonomy, competence, and relatedness are the need satisfaction of an individual that will highlight the silent moderating effects, which will reduce the negative influences of mobile addiction on an individual's overall well-being. Compulsive use of mobile phones is more than just an addiction. It may be a sign of deeper unmet psychological needs. This suggests that the causes of excessive phone use and declining mental and psychological well-being are more complex than just addiction. The proposed theoretical model underlines the dual role of technology. Based on this research, need satisfaction is explored in the context of digital platform addiction and further pointing out how personal autonomy and social relatedness can potentially enhance the adverse impact of mobile usage on social behavior. As a result, it offers a fresh perspective to the theoretical debate about the psychological mechanisms of technology addiction. It also outlines new directions in research on digital well-being and strategies for behavioral change grounded in needs satisfaction.
This research advances A-C-E framework by exploring role of need satisfaction as moderator between the relationship of mobile phone addiction, phubbing behaviour, and well-being. The results contest the application of SDT, signifying that psychological needs vary as per contextual factors, such as urban lifestyles or workplace demands [33]. The A-C-E framework is extended by highlighting the role of diversion in driving phubbing, but future models may incorporate cultural and socioeconomic influences.
Managerial implications
The results of this research suggest that mobile phone addiction and phubbing behavior of consumers should be addressed to address the issues of psychological well-being, stress, anxiety, and social isolation. Tech companies, app developers, and wellness brands have a huge opportunity to make mindful usage a reality through designing tools that embrace screen time tracking, downtime features, and app usage reminders. Behavioral change could be encouraged through educational campaigns with influencers and mental health experts, reward-based games, and in-app prompts to increase the use of smartphones with our faces. Businesses can draw from need satisfaction (SDT), and may develop a digital experience that addresses the need for autonomy, competence, and relatedness by giving people what they want to customize. It might offer users with new opportunities to develop new skills, and facilitating meaningful social connections. For example, apps like Forest, Focus Keeper, and Toggl Track reduce compulsive use by enhancing competence [19]. Educational institutes should teach communication skills to foster relatedness, reducing phubbing [17]. Workplaces should also consider implementing "phone-free" zones to curb phubbing, as it disrupts professional relationships [13]. Furthermore, mobile service providers and stores can adopt guidelines to educate users on balancing screen time and well-being with features such as 'Do Not Disturb' modes and limits on social media usage. Combining these strategies allows businesses to enable more healthy usage of mobile devices to improve user well-being and better-balanced relationships with mobile technology. Policymakers should launch campaigns modelled on anti-smoking initiatives to promote mindful technology use. Effectiveness can be measured using well-being scales [38] and phubbing frequency [45].
Conclusion
This research study examines how using mobile phones excessively affects a person's mental well-being and behavior. It highlights the growing concern over the adverse effects of too much smartphone use. The rise of addictive technology and the business models that keep individuals deeply involved in their devices have contributed to the widespread prevalence of these challenges. Reasons like parental neglect, adverse family relationships, and the failure to cope with social circumstances may also increase the risk of smartphone addiction, which in turn can further aggravate psychological and mental well-being. As smartphones and other digital technologies continue to grow, especially among university students and working employees, there is a pressing need to address these concerns and issues and develop effective interventions to promote healthy technology habits and improve overall well-being.
Limitations and future research directions
Some limitations should be acknowledged in this research article. This research offers a deeper understanding of the role of need satisfaction in mobile phone addiction and its effects on phubbing and psychological well-being. However, it may not consider other factors like personality, culture, or environment, which also influence these behaviors. Secondly, as the non-probability purposive sampling technique was employed, and the sample was not randomly selected, the findings may lack external validity. The results cannot be confidently generalized to the broader population, as selection bias might influence observed patterns. The teenagers or older adults may experience mobile addiction and phubbing behaviors differently. Thirdly, a key limitation of this study is its cross-sectional design, which restricts the ability to draw causal relationships between mobile phone addiction, phubbing behavior, and well-being. Hence, the findings should therefore be interpreted as associations rather than causal effects. Next, the present model focuses on mobile phone usage addiction, phubbing, well-being, and basic psychological needs, other factors such as personality traits (e.g., impulsivity, neuroticism), perceived stress, emotion regulation, and social support were not examined. Future researches may examine these variables which may further explain why some individuals are more vulnerable to problematic use and phubbing and how strongly these behaviors relate to mental and psychological well-being. Lastly, this research model assumes that the satisfaction of psychological needs is static, whereas, in reality, these needs can vary depending on external stressors, job demands, or life circumstances, which may require a more dynamic framework to understand the work-life balance culture.
For future research, there is a need to explore how demographic factors such as age, gender, and occupation might influence the relationship between mobile addiction, phubbing, and psychological well-being. Longitudinal studies could also provide a deeper understanding of how mobile phone addiction evolves and how interventions targeting need satisfaction might alter this trajectory. Further research should examine the role of specific workplace dynamics, such as remote versus in-office environments, and how they mediate the effects of mobile addiction on productivity and personal relations. Lastly, cross-cultural studies would help to determine if the relationship between SDT, mobile addiction, and psychological well-being holds in different cultural contexts, particularly in regions with varying technological reliance and social norms around mobile usage. These findings underscore the psychological costs of constant smartphone exposure, highlight phubbing as a meaningful interpersonal mechanism through which mobile addiction relates to reduced well-being, and introduce the satisfaction of autonomy, competence, and relatedness as a novel protective factor that can inform future interventions and policies.
Supplementary Information
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to acknowledge the participants of the survey for their support. The authors are also grateful to editor-in-chief for the opportunity to submit research in the journal.
Authors’ contributions
Conceptualization, and Data curation by Dr. Prerana Baber, Writing-original draft by Prerana Baber. Methodology, Supervision, Review-editing by Dr. Ruturaj Baber, and Dr. Prerana Baber. Both the authors approved the final manuscript.
Funding
Open access funding provided by Symbiosis International (Deemed University). The authors did not receive support from any organization for the submitted work.
Data availability
The datasets used and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.
Declarations
Ethics approval and consent to participate
The need for ethical approval for this study was waived by IRB constituted by Symbiosis Law School, Noida (A Constituent of Symbiosis International University) as it did not involve vulnerable populations or any interventions posing risk to participants. The study was conducted in line with the ethical principles of the Declaration of Helsinki (1964) and its subsequent amendments. Informed consent was obtained from all participants before data collection, and their responses were kept confidential, ensuring compliance with ethical research standards.
The informed consent to participate was obtained from all of the participants in the study.
Consent for publication
Not applicable.
Competing interests
The authors declare no competing interests.
Footnotes
Publisher’s Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Contributor Information
Prerana Baber, Email: prerana.baber@symlaw.edu.in.
Ruturaj Baber, Email: ruturajbaber@gmail.com.
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Associated Data
This section collects any data citations, data availability statements, or supplementary materials included in this article.
Supplementary Materials
Data Availability Statement
The datasets used and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.