Table 2.
Baseline characteristics of the included studies.
| Author (1st author et al.) | Year | Country | Study type | Population | Sample size | Intervention | Outcome | Outcome definition/Cut-offs | Effect metrics |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Balasubramanian et al. (40) | 2003 | India | Comparative | Children/adolescents | 80 | Ca ± vit D | Healing | Clinical and x-ray | OR 4.8 if Ca < 300 mg |
| Graff et al. (34) | 2004 | Nigeria | Observational | Rickets children | 30 | Calcium supplementation | Ca absorption | Fractional absorption | ↑ absorption (p = 0.035) |
| Al-Mekhlafi et al. (41) | 2010 | Malaysia | Cross-sectional study | Aboriginal school children | 250 | Observational | Giardiasis and vitamin A status | Stool exam; serum retinol <0.7 μmol/L | Giardia infection associated with poor vitamin A status |
| El Kholy et al. (33) | 2017 | Egypt | Prospective cohort | Children with rickets | 139 | Standard therapy + genetics | Radiologic healing | X-ray healing | Genotype influenced response |
| Thacher et al. (42) | 2009 | Nigeria | Dietary study | Rickets children | 34 | Ca + ergocalciferol | Ca/Zn absorption | Fractional absorption | ↑ Ca absorption (p < 0.001) |
| Thacher et al. (35) | 2014 | Nigeria | RCT | Ca-deficiency rickets | 72 | Ca ± vitamin D | Radiologic healing | Score ≤1.5 | Combined therapy superior (67%) |
| Aggarwal et al. (39) | 2012 | India | Case–control | Rickets vs. controls | 135 | Dietary comparison | Ca intake | Below RDA | Lower intake (p < 0.001) |
| Aggarwal et al. (36) | 2013 | India | RCT | Rickets children | 67 | Vit D, Ca or both | Radiologic healing | X-ray resolution | Combination best (50%) |
| Ahmed et al. (43) | 2020 | Bangladesh | Case–control | Rural children | 128 | Diet and biochemical | 25-OH-D, Ca | <25 nmol/L | Ca deficiency major contributor |
| Acoglu et al. (44) | 2020 | Turkey | Case series | Refugee children | 77 | Clinical evaluation | Prevalence | Radiographic criteria | 28.5% rickets |
| Jain et al. (45) | 2011 | India | Observational | Breastfed infants | 360 | None | 25-OH-D | <50 nmol/L | High deficiency |
| Wheeler et al. (46) | 2015 | New Zealand | Surveillance | Pediatric rickets | 106 | Monitoring | Incidence | Radiographic confirmed | 2.2/100,000/year |
| Naik et al. (37) | 2017 | India | RCT | Mother-infant dyads | 180 | Maternal vit D | Infant 25-OH-D | <50 nmol/L | ↑ levels (p < 0.001) |
| Trivedi et al. (38) | 2020 | India | RCT | Mother-infant dyads | 210 | Maternal vit D | Infant 25-OH-D | <50 nmol/L | ↑ levels (p < 0.001) |
| Al-Atawi et al. (47) | 2009 | Saudi Arabia | Retrospective | Infants | 283 | Chart review | Vit D status | <12 nmol/L | Severe deficiency common |
| Huybregts et al. (48) | 2017 | Burkina Faso and Mali | Cluster RCT | 6–24 mo children | 2000 | SQ-LNS | Acute malnutrition | WLZ < −2 | Reduced prevalence |
| Van Der Kam et al. (49) | 2016 | Nigeria | RCT | Post-illness children | 399 | RUTF vs. micronutrients | Nutritional recovery | MUAC/WLZ | Improved recovery |
| Soofi et al. (5) | 2022 | Pakistan | Cluster RCT | Pregnant women and infants | 1,352 | LNS supplementation | Stunting | LAZ < −2 | ↓ stunting (p = 0.017) |
| Dewey et al. (50) | 2022 | Multicountry | IPD Meta-analysis | 6–24 mo children | 36,795 | SQ-LNS | Severe wasting/stunting | LAZ/WLZ < −3 | PR 0.69 (wasting) |
| Kambale et al. (6) | 2023 | DR Congo | RCT | SAM children | 400 | Probiotics + RUTF | Diarrhea duration | Days ill | Reduced duration (p < 0.001) |
| Sangalang et al. (7) | 2022 | Philippines | Cluster RCT | Schoolchildren | 1,558 | WaSH | BMI, hydration | BMI-for-age | Improved hygiene |
| Chek et al. (8) | 2022 | Malaysia | Cluster RCT (protocol) | Urban poor <5 yrs | 600 | Positive deviance program | Undernutrition | WAZ/HAZ < −2 | Protocol |
| Cazes et al. (51) | 2022 | DR Congo | Non-inferiority RCT | 6–59 mo children | 981 | OptiMA simplified | Recovery | MUAC ≥125 mm | Non-inferior |
| Lambrecht et al. (52) | 2023 | Bangladesh | Cluster RCT | <5 yrs | 2,700 | Homestead food production | Diarrhea, ARI | 2-week recall | ↓ diarrhea |
| Grijalva-Eternod et al. (53) | 2023 | Somalia | 2 × 2 factorial cluster RCT | IDP households | 1,122 | Cash transfer + mHealth | Malnutrition risk | MUAC <125 mm | Improved food security |
| Hojati et al. (54) | 2023 | Iran | RCT (protocol) | Preschool children | 120 | Nutrition mobile app | Knowledge, WAZ/HAZ | <−2 SD | Protocol |
| Daures et al. (55) | 2022 | Niger | 3-arm RCT (protocol) | 6–59 mo children | 1,200 | Simplified community care | Recovery | MUAC ≥125 mm | Non-inferiority design |
| Tamara et al. (56) | 2022 | Indonesia | Double-blind RCT | Children with pulmonary TB | 84 | Vitamin D supplementation | Fever and cough resolution time | Clinical symptom resolution | Faster fever resolution (p < 0.05) |
| Tickell et al. (57) | 2023 | Kenya | RCT | Caregivers and children 6–59 mo | 1,200 | Family MUAC + 2-way SMS | Early wasting detection | MUAC <125 mm | Improved detection rates |
| Cazes et al. (58) | 2023 | DR Congo | Non-inferiority RCT | SAM children | 1,282 | Reduced RUTF dosage | Nutritional recovery | MUAC ≥125 mm and no edema | Reduced dose non-inferior |
| Batool et al. (59) | 2023 | Pakistan | Double-blind parallel RCT | Children with severe acute malnutrition (SAM) | 110 | Prebiotic supplementation vs. placebo | Nutritional recovery; gut health | MUAC ≥125 mm; WHZ ≥ −2 | Improved weight gain and gut biomarkers (p < 0.05) |
| Rahman et al. (60) | 2025 | Bangladesh | RCT protocol (CRADLE trial) | Pregnant women and young children | 800 | Installation of household concrete floors | Maternal and child health; infection; growth | Diarrhea prevalence; anthropometry | Protocol – results pending |
| Vilander et al. (61) | 2022 | Mali and Nicaragua | RCT | Infants 6–12 months | 95 | Dietary rice bran supplementation | Microbiota diversity; enteric dysfunction | Fecal sIgA; microbiome indices | ↑ microbiota diversity and sIgA (p < 0.05) |
| Soofi et al. (62) | 2022 | Pakistan | Cluster RCT | Children <18 months | 2,357 | Unconditional cash transfer ± LNS ± BCC | Stunting prevention | LAZ < −2 SD | Reduced stunting risk (RR ≈ 0.80) |
| Bhargava et al. (63) | 2023 | India | Open-label cluster RCT | Household contacts of pulmonary TB patients | 10,345 | Nutritional supplementation (food rations) | TB incidence | Microbiologically confirmed TB | ~39% relative reduction in TB incidence |
| Kirolos et al. (64) | 2024 | Malawi | Prospective observational cohort study | Adolescents with prior severe childhood malnutrition | 352 | Long-term follow-up of SAM survivors (LOSCM study) | Growth, body composition, cardiometabolic risk, cognitive outcomes | Anthropometry; metabolic markers; neurocognitive testing | Persistent deficits in growth and lean mass; increased cardiometabolic risk indicators |
| Argaw et al. (65) | 2023 | Burkina Faso | 2 × 2 factorial individually randomized controlled trial | Pregnant and lactating women and their infants | 1,897 | Fortified balanced energy–protein supplementation during pregnancy and/or lactation | Infant growth outcomes; stunting | LAZ; WLZ; WAZ; stunting (LAZ < −2) | Improved linear growth in supplemented groups |
| Liu et al. (66) | 2022 | China | Cluster randomized clinical trial | Primary school children | 1,392 | Multifaceted obesity prevention intervention (nutrition education + physical activity + behavioral change) | BMI; overweight/obesity prevalence | BMI z-scores; overweight/obesity per WHO criteria | Significant reduction in BMI gain and obesity prevalence |
| Kohl et al. (67) | 2022 | Haiti | Randomized controlled trial protocol | Caregivers and young children | 600 | Integrated responsive parenting, nutrition and hygiene intervention (Grandi Byen) | Child growth and development; caregiving practices | Anthropometry; developmental scales | Protocol – effectiveness outcomes pending |
| Ow et al. (68) | 2025 | Vietnam | Randomized controlled trial | Children with or at risk for undernutrition | 321 | Long-term oral nutritional supplementation + dietary counseling | Growth; body composition; bone mineralization | Height-for-age; body fat %; bone mineral density | Significant improvements in growth and bone mineralization |
| Nuzhat et al. (69) | 2023 | Bangladesh | Randomized clinical trial | Severely malnourished young infants | 160 | Probiotic and synbiotic supplementation | Ponderal and linear growth | Weight-for-age (WAZ); Length-for-age (LAZ); WLZ | Improved weight gain; modest improvement in linear growth |
| Sié et al. (70) | 2024 | Burkina Faso | Randomized controlled trial (secondary analysis) | Infants | 21,832 | Single-dose azithromycin | Anthropometric growth outcomes | Weight-for-age; Height-for-age; MUAC | No clinically meaningful improvement in growth outcomes |
| Taneja et al. (71) | 2022 | India | Factorial individually randomized controlled trial | Women (preconception/pregnancy) and children to 24 months | 7,500 | Integrated package: health, nutrition, psychosocial stimulation and WaSH | Birth outcomes; linear growth at 24 months | LAZ at 24 months; birth weight | Improved birth weight; modest gains in linear growth |
| Ricci et al. (72) | 2024 | South Africa | Randomized controlled trial | Infants aged 6–9 months | 500 | Egg introduced as early complementary food | Growth (length and weight gain) | LAZ; WAZ; WLZ | Improved length gain; reduced risk of stunting |
| Wang et al. (73) | 2022 | Tanzania | Double-blind randomized controlled trial | Pregnant women and their children | 1,000 | Prenatal and postnatal maternal multiple micronutrient supplementation | Child growth; morbidity | LAZ; WAZ; morbidity incidence | Improved child growth indicators; reduced morbidity risk |
| Gebretsadik et al. (74) | 2023 | Ethiopia (Tigray) | Cross-sectional study | Children aged 6–59 months in war-affected communities | 614 | Exposure: conflict-related, household and community-level factors | Acute malnutrition prevalence | WHZ < −2 SD and/or MUAC <125 mm | High prevalence of acute malnutrition; associated with food insecurity, displacement, poor sanitation |
| Khadilkar et al. (75) | 2025 | India | Randomized controlled trial (6 months) | Children aged 3–6.9 years with growth faltering | 330 | Oral nutritional supplementation + dietary counseling vs. counseling alone | Linear catch-up growth | Height-for-age z-score (HAZ); growth velocity | Significant improvement in linear growth and catch-up growth rates |
| Datoo et al. (76) | 2022 | Burkina Faso | Phase 1/2b randomized controlled trial | Children (5–17 months at enrollment) | 450 | R21/Matrix-M malaria vaccine | Clinical malaria incidence; immunogenicity | PCR-confirmed clinical malaria; antibody titers | High vaccine efficacy maintained over 2 years; strong immunogenic response |
| Smith et al. (77) | 2022 | Zimbabwe | Randomized controlled trial protocol (CHAIN trial) | Infants and young children (IYCF intervention in rural communities) | 1,920 | Improved infant and young child feeding (IYCF) intervention integrated with agriculture and nutrition support | Child growth; dietary diversity; stunting | LAZ; minimum dietary diversity; stunting (LAZ < −2) | Protocol – outcomes pending |
| George et al. (78) | 2025 | Democratic Republic of the Congo | Cluster-randomized controlled trial | Households with young children in cholera-endemic areas | 2,400 | PICHA7 WASHmobile program (water, sanitation, hygiene + mHealth support) | Diarrhea; cholera; child growth | Caregiver-reported diarrhea; confirmed cholera; anthropometry | Reduced diarrhea and cholera incidence; improved growth indicators |
| Alam et al. (79) | 2022 | Bangladesh | Double-blind randomized controlled trial protocol | Children with severe acute malnutrition (SAM) | 124 | L-Carnitine supplementation vs. placebo | Rate of weight gain; biomarkers of environmental enteric dysfunction (EED) | g/kg/day weight gain; EED biomarkers | Protocol – effectiveness outcomes pending |
| Lautatzis et al. (2) | 2024 | Bangladesh | Secondary analysis of randomized trial | Infants of mothers receiving supplementation | 1,100 | Maternal vitamin D supplementation | Infantile rickets incidence | Clinical and radiological diagnosis of rickets | Maternal supplementation reduced risk of infantile rickets |
| Dabas et al. (1) | 2023 | India | Randomized controlled open-label trial | Children with nutritional rickets | 120 | Daily vs. weekly oral vitamin D3 | Correction of rickets | Radiological and biochemical resolution | Daily vitamin D3 achieved faster correction than weekly regimen |
| Saluja et al. (9) | 2022 | India | Randomized clinical trial | Children with nutritional rickets | 100 | Low-dose depot oral vitamin D3 vs. daily oral vitamin D3 | Rickets resolution | Radiological improvement and serum 25(OH)D normalization | Both regimens effective; daily dose slightly faster |
| Aggarwal et al. (36) | 2013 | India | Randomized controlled trial | Children with nutritional rickets | 180 | Standard treatment vs. structured supplementation | Nutritional rickets resolution | Radiological scoring and biochemical markers | Structured regimen improved biochemical correction |
| Wu et al. (80) | 2023 | Global (IPD meta-analysis) | Systematic review + individual participant data meta-analysis | Children/adolescents with vitamin D deficiency | 3,200 | Vitamin D supplementation | Bone density improvement | BMD z-score; DXA measurements | Supplementation improved bone density; effect modified by baseline deficiency |
| Wangeci (81) | 2022 | Kenya | Observational study | Children 6–59 months with acute malnutrition | 245 | N/A (cross-sectional assessment) | Nutritional rickets prevalence | Clinical and radiological diagnosis | High prevalence of rickets among SAM children |
| Mondal et al. (82) | 2024 | India | Open-label randomized controlled trial | Children aged 1–10 years with vitamin D deficiency | 130 | Daily vs. fortnightly oral vitamin D3 | Correction of vitamin D deficiency | Serum 25(OH)D normalization | Daily dosing more effective than fortnightly for rapid correction |
| Reyes et al. (83) | 2024 | Multinational | Randomized controlled trial | Young children (different latitudes) | 1,560 | Weekly vitamin D supplementation | Prevention of acute respiratory infections | Clinically diagnosed ARI episodes | Vitamin D reduced incidence of ARI, effect stronger at higher latitudes |
| Ganmaa et al. (84) | 2024 | Mongolia | Multicentre double-blind randomized placebo-controlled trial | Schoolchildren | 4,700 | Vitamin D supplementation | Fracture prevention (secondary outcome) | Incident fractures recorded | Vitamin D reduced fracture risk modestly in school-aged children |
| Goyal et al. (85) | 2022 | India | Randomized controlled trial | Infants | 150 | Sunlight exposure vs. oral vitamin D supplementation | Prevention of vitamin D deficiency | Serum 25(OH)D levels < 50 nmol/L | Vitamin D supplementation more effective than sunlight alone |
| Gora et al. (86) | 2023 | India | Randomized controlled trial | Infants with symptomatic vitamin D deficiency | 120 | Daily vs. monthly oral vitamin D3 | Correction of vitamin D deficiency | Serum 25(OH)D normalization | Daily dosing achieved faster correction than monthly dosing |
| O’Callaghan et al. (87) | 2022 | Bangladesh | Follow-up of randomized controlled trial | Offspring of mothers receiving prenatal/postpartum vitamin D | 850 | Maternal prenatal and postpartum vitamin D supplementation | Offspring bone mass and muscle strength | DXA bone mineral density; grip strength | Increased bone mass and muscle strength at early childhood |
| Roberson et al. (88) | 2023 | USA | Secondary analysis of RCT (VITC, thiamine, hydrocortisone in sepsis) | Sepsis survivors | 501 | IV vitamin C, thiamine, and hydrocortisone | Cognitive, psychological, functional outcomes | Standardized neurocognitive and psychological assessments | No significant long-term cognitive or functional benefit observed |
| Cashman et al. (89) | 2022 | Multinational (High latitude, dark-skinned populations) | IPD meta-analysis of RCTs | Children and adults | 1,230 | Vitamin D supplementation | Dietary requirement estimation for vitamin D | Serum 25(OH)D ≥ 50 nmol/L | Provided evidence-based vitamin D intake recommendations for high-latitude dark-skinned populations |
| Khalil et al. (90) | 2024 | UK and Europe | Protocol – prospective multicentre mixed-methods feasibility study | Monochorionic twin pregnancies with early-onset selective fetal growth restriction | 60 | RCT: intervention vs. expectant management | Feasibility outcomes; maternal and neonatal safety | Recruitment, retention, protocol adherence | Protocol study – feasibility outcomes; effectiveness pending |
| Yadav et al. (91) | 2022 | India | Randomized controlled trial | Term breastfed infants | 140 | Vitamin D3 800 IU/day vs. 400 IU/day | Prevention of vitamin D deficiency | Serum 25(OH)D < 50 nmol/L | 800 IU/day more effective than 400 IU/day |
| Bashiri et al. (92) | 2024 | Saudi Arabia | Randomized controlled trial | Children with epilepsy on antiseizure medications | 120 | Vitamin D supplementation | Serum vitamin D levels; seizure control | Serum 25(OH)D; seizure frequency | Improved vitamin D status; no significant change in seizures |
| Raju et al. (93) | 2024 | India | Double-blind randomized controlled trial | Young children | 160 | Vitamin D supplementation | Prevention of acute respiratory infections | Clinically diagnosed ARI | Reduced ARI incidence compared with placebo |
| Sharma et al. (94) | 2025 | USA | Randomized controlled study | Children with obesity and difficult-to-treat asthma | 75 | 1-year weight management program | Asthma control; weight | BMI z-score; asthma control questionnaire | Improved weight and asthma outcomes |
| Matheny et al. (95) | 2025 | USA | Randomized controlled trial | Adults undergoing contrast procedures | 210 | Intervention to prevent contrast-associated AKI | Incidence of AKI | Serum creatinine ≥0.3 mg/dL or ≥50% increase | Sustained reduction in AKI incidence post-intervention |
| Wiafe et al. (96) | 2023 | Ghana | Randomized controlled trial | Early adolescents | 240 | Nutrition education and counselling | Nutritional status; anemia | Hemoglobin <12 g/dL; anthropometry | Improved hemoglobin levels and nutritional status |
| Al-Mekhlafi et al. (97) | 2013 | Yemen | Randomized controlled trial | Children 6–59 months | 300 | Vitamin A supplementation | Iron status; anemia | Hemoglobin <11 g/dL; serum ferritin | Vitamin A improved iron indices and reduced anemia prevalence |
| Powers et al. (98) | 2017 | USA | Randomized clinical trial | Young children with nutritional iron-deficiency anemia | 150 | Ferrous sulfate vs. iron polysaccharide complex | Hemoglobin concentration | Hb < 11 g/dL | Both treatments increased Hb; ferrous sulfate slightly faster response |
| Stewart et al. (99) | 2020 | Madagascar | Multi-arm cluster-randomized controlled trial | Children 6–24 months | 1,500 | Lipid-based nutrient supplementation (LNS) | Anemia; micronutrient status | Hb < 11 g/dL; serum ferritin | Reduced anemia prevalence and improved micronutrient levels |
| Abrha et al. (100) | 2016 | Ethiopia | Community-based cross-sectional study | Preschool children | 420 | Observational | Clinical manifestations of vitamin A deficiency | Bitot’s spots, night blindness | High prevalence of VAD in rural district; associated with poor diet |
| Nigusse and Gebretsadik (101) | 2021 | Ethiopia | Cross-sectional study | Children 6–59 months | 500 | Observational | Vitamin A supplementation coverage; ocular signs | Clinical VAD signs; supplementation status | Moderate coverage; VAD signs present in unsupplemented children |
| Okyere et al. (102) | 2022 | Ghana | Demographic and Health Survey analysis | Children 6–59 months | 12,000 | Observational | Trends and inequalities in vitamin A supplementation | Receipt of VAS in last 6 months | Coverage improved over 2003–2014; inequalities by region and SES |
| Atukunda et al. (103) | 2021 | Uganda | Secondary analysis of RCT | Children 6–59 months | 400 | Education trial; urine iodine markers | Growth and development | Height-for-age, weight-for-age, cognitive development | Urinary iodine associated with better growth outcomes |
| Hess et al. (104) | 2015 | Burkina Faso | Cluster-randomized trial | Children 6–36 months | 1,200 | Small-quantity LNS + iodized salt | Iodine status | Urinary iodine concentration (UIC) | Improved iodine status in LNS + salt group |
| Tariku et al. (105) | 2016 | Ethiopia | Community-based cross-sectional study | Preschool children 1–5 years | 450 | Observational | Vitamin A deficiency and determinants | Serum retinol <0.7 μmol/L | VAD prevalent; associated with diet and socioeconomic factors |
| Williams et al. (106) | 2021 | Malawi | Observational survey | Children 6–59 months | 1,100 | Observational | Vitamin A deficiency and excess | Serum retinol; plasma retinol >1.3 μmol/L | VAD declined; some children had elevated vitamin A levels |
| Yisak et al. (107) | 2020 | Ethiopia | Mixed methods cross-sectional | Preschool children 1–5 years | 520 | Observational | Clinical VAD prevalence | Bitot’s spots, night blindness | Prevalence of clinical VAD; associated with diet and maternal knowledge |
| Hotz et al. (108) | 2012 | Zambia | Observational cross-sectional | Preschool children | 360 | Observational | Plasma retinol; infection status | Serum retinol <0.7 μmol/L | Vitamin A intake and infection influenced plasma retinol levels |
| Abou-Rizk et al. (109) | 2021 | Lebanon | Cross-sectional survey | Syrian refugee mothers and children <5 years | 800 | Observational | Anemia and nutritional status | Hemoglobin <11 g/dL; anthropometry | High prevalence of anemia and undernutrition among refugees |
| Leidman et al. (110) | 2018 | Bangladesh | Cross-sectional survey | Rohingya children 6–59 months | 1,200 | Observational | Acute malnutrition and anemia | WHZ < −2 SD; Hb < 11 g/dL | High rates of acute malnutrition and anemia in refugee camp |
| Jeremias et al. (111) | 2023 | Lebanon | Mixed-methods study | Syrian refugee children 6–23 months | 420 | Observational | Anemia prevalence | Hemoglobin <11 g/dL | High anemia prevalence; qualitative insights from mothers and healthcare staff |
| Ajakaye et al. (112) | 2020 | Nigeria | Cross-sectional survey | Children in IDP camps | 300 | Observational | Malaria, anemia, malnutrition | Hb < 11 g/dL; WHZ < −2 SD; malaria parasitemia | High prevalence of malaria, anemia, and malnutrition; risk factors identified |
| Ndemwa et al. (113) | 2011 | Kenya | Cross-sectional survey | Women and children in Kakuma Refugee Camp | 450 | Observational | Iron status and hemoglobin | Serum ferritin <12 μg/L; Hb < 11 g/dL | Availability of micronutrient powder associated with improved iron status |
| Uijterschout et al. (114) | 2014 | Netherlands | Cross-sectional study | Healthy young children | 200 | Observational | Iron deficiency prevalence | Serum ferritin <12 μg/L; Hb < 11 g/dL | Identified risk factors for iron deficiency in low-risk population |
| Vendt et al. (115) | 2007 | Estonia | Cross-sectional study | Infants 9–12 months | 180 | Observational | Iron deficiency anemia | Hb < 11 g/dL; ferritin <12 μg/L | Moderate prevalence of IDA; causes mainly dietary |
| Andriani et al. (116) | 2023 | Indonesia | Repeated cross-sectional surveys; multilevel analysis | Children under 5 | 5,000 | Observational | Triple burden of malnutrition | Stunting, wasting, overweight | Determinants include socioeconomic and feeding practices |
| Benedict et al. (22) | 2021 | Thailand | Cross-sectional study | Children under 5 | 1,200 | Observational | Double burden of malnutrition | Stunting and overweight | Associated with suboptimal infant/child feeding practices |
| Chee et al. (117) | 2021 | Malaysia | Cross-sectional study | Pre-adolescent children | 350 | Observational | Vitamin D status | Serum 25(OH)D < 50 nmol/L | Vitamin D deficiency associated with modifiable lifestyle factors (sun exposure, diet) |
| Rashid et al. (118) | 2022 | Malaysia | Cluster randomized controlled trial protocol | Preschool child–parent dyads | 460 | Interactive Malaysian Childhood Healthy Lifestyle (i-MaCHeL) program | Weight-related behaviors; BMI | BMI z-scores; behavioral assessments | Protocol – behavioral and BMI outcomes pending |