Table 4.
Theoretical references and components of learning environment adopted by included studies
| Author, year | Theoretical reference adopted | Components of learning environment* |
|---|---|---|
| Ge, Planas & Er, 2010 [24] | Sociocultural theory of Vygotsky (Vygotsky, 1978) | Social, Organizational, and Virtual |
| Brown & Vosper, 2013 [25] | Constructivist Theory (Vygotsky, 1978; Honebein, Duffy & Fishman, 1993) | Personal, Social, Organizational, Physical, and Virtual |
| Eukel et al., 2014 [26] | Not reported | Personal, Social, Organizational, and Physical |
| Leong, 2016 [27] | Not reported | Personal, Social, Organizational, and Physical |
| McDowell et al., 2016 [28] | Not reported | Personal, Social, Organizational, and Virtual |
| Pick, Begley & Augustine, 2017 [29] | Not reported | Organizational and Virtual |
| Azhari et al., 2020 [30] | Social Constructivism Theory (Wink & Putney, 2002) | Personal, Social, Organizational, and Virtual |
| Al-Taweel et al., 2024 [31] | Not reported | Personal and Organizational |
| Caldas et al., 2025 [32] | Not reported | Social, Organizational, and Physical |
| Maharajan, Sivapalan & Rajiah, 2025 [33] | Relational pedagogy – patterns of partnership model (Fielding, 2011) | Personal, Social, and Organizational |
| Raeni, de Beaufort & Pranger, 2025 [34] | Kolb’s Experiential Learning Theory (Kolb, 1984; McLeod, 2024) | Personal, Social, Organizational, and Physical |
*The components identified in studies were classified following Gruppen et al. (2018) [10]. Source: author