Table 3. Improvements in the current green synthesis of silver nanoparticles.

Drawback in prior green synthesis reports	Present method of potential mitigation	Mechanistic/Design rationale
Lack of defined surface chemistry and reproducibility	Propolis coating provides more uniform surface chemistry and functional groups for stabilization	Propolis contains flavonoids, phenolics, and waxes that act as reducing and capping agents, promoting consistent stabilization
Inconsistent particle size and aggregation	Propolis-assisted decoration narrows size distribution and reduces aggregation	Propolis moieties offer steric and electrostatic stabilization, aiding dispersion
Lower antibacterial activity due to suboptimal metal loading/release	Synergistic enhancement from silver core + propolis matrix; potential tuned release	Propolis components may modulate Ag release and disrupt microbial membranes alongside NPP/AgONPs
Biocompatibility concerns and cytotoxicity toward normal cells	Propolis coating can tune biocompatibility and potentially improve selectivity	Propolis constituents modulate ROS and apoptosis pathways, potentially favoring cancer-cell targeting while reducing normal-cell damage in some contexts
Complexity and lack of scalability	Streamlined wet-chemical route using propolis extract; fewer steps	Propolis extract acts as both reducing and capping agent; reduces need for multiple reagents
Stability in biological media and shelf life	Propolis decoration enhances colloidal stability in physiological conditions	Phytochemicals provide steric and electrostatic stabilization; reduce protein corona-induced aggregation
Regulatory and reproducibility concerns due to complex plant mixtures	Defined propolis source with characterized composition improves traceability	Documenting extract composition and standardizing preparation reduces variability