Table 2.

The advantages and disadvantages of HIOs models, cell models, and animal models

	Advantages	Disadvantages
HIOs models	High physiological similarity to in vivo tissues, with relatively diverse functions.	Only simulate epithelial tissues, with insufficient complexity.
	Minimal ethical controversies, reduced reliance on experimental animals, and lower costs.	Challenges exist in standardizing culture conditions.
Cell models	Simple and convenient to operate, suitable for short-term experiments.	Low physiological relevance to in vivo cells.
		Relatively single cell type and limited functions.
Animal models	Can simulate in vivo physiological environments and multi-organ interactions.	Exist differences between species and individual variations, making it difficult to establish specific models.
	Served as the “gold standard” for preclinical drug research and the basis of translational medicine.	High ethical controversies, high costs, and long cycles.