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. 2026 May 7;11(5):aakag044. doi: 10.1093/esj/aakag044

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© The Author(s) 2026. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the European Stroke Organisation.

This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/), which permits non-commercial re-use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. For commercial re-use, please contact reprints@oup.com for reprints and translation rights for reprints. All other permissions can be obtained through our RightsLink service via the Permissions link on the article page on our site—for further information please contact journals.permissions@oup.com.

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Pooled results show no significant difference in SAP incidence compared with no beta-blockers, with risk of bias predominantly rated as some concerns across studies. — Forest plot of beta-blockers and risk-of-bias assessment for SAP incidence. ^aConfidence interval (CI) calculated with Wald-type method. ^bTau² calculated with DerSimonian and Laird method. Risk of bias legend: (A) bias arising from the randomization process, (B) bias due to deviations from intended interventions, (C) bias due to missing outcome data, (D) bias in measurement of the outcome, (E) bias in selection of the reported result, (F) overall bias. High, some concerns, low, No information.

Inline graphic — Forest plot of beta-blockers and risk-of-bias assessment for SAP incidence. ^aConfidence interval (CI) calculated with Wald-type method. ^bTau² calculated with DerSimonian and Laird method. Risk of bias legend: (A) bias arising from the randomization process, (B) bias due to deviations from intended interventions, (C) bias due to missing outcome data, (D) bias in measurement of the outcome, (E) bias in selection of the reported result, (F) overall bias. High, some concerns, low, No information.