Table 2.

Comparison of major plant model systems relevant to dissect rhizome biology

Model system	Rhizomes	Generation time	Genome size	Natural variation in rhizomes	Transformation efficiency
Oryza sativa (rice)	✕ in O. sativa; √ in wild relative	~ 4 months	~ 400 Mb	✕ (via O. longistaminata introgression)	√ O. sativa; √ O. longistaminata
Sorghum halepense / S. propinquum	√	~ 3–4 months	~ 730 Mb	√	✕
Nelumbo nucifera	√	~ 3–5 months	~ 929 Mb	√	✕
Chrysanthemum morifolium	√	~ 3–4 months	~ 9 Gb	√	✕
Arabidopsis thaliana	✕	~ 6 weeks	~ 135 Mb	✕	√
Solanum lycopersicum (tomato)	✕	~ 3 months	~ 900 Mb	✕	√
Brachypodium distachyon	✕	~ 8 weeks	~ 272 Mb	✕	√
Setaria viridis	✕	~ 6 weeks	~ 510 Mb	✕	√
Populus trichocarpa (Poplar)	✕	~ 6 months (early-flowering lines)	~ 480 Mb	✕	√
Mimulus (monkeyflowers)	√	~ 6 weeks	~ 430 Mb	√ extensive	√

Summary of key features of representative plant systems, including generation time, genome size, presence of rhizomes, natural variation in rhizome traits, and feasibility of genetic transformation, to facilitate comparative evaluation across systems. These systems include both rhizome-forming species and non-rhizomatous model organisms, the latter of which provide important genetic and functional frameworks for understanding conserved developmental processes relevant to rhizome biology. Representative references are cited in the main text