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. 2026 Mar 30;28:107. doi: 10.1186/s13075-026-03801-1

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© The Author(s) 2026

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License, which permits any non-commercial use, sharing, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if you modified the licensed material. You do not have permission under this licence to share adapted material derived from this article or parts of it. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/.

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Fig. 3 — Metabolomic analyses of differential metabolites in plasma exosomes from SLE patients. A OPLS-DA score plots from metabolomics analysis comparing plasma exosomal profiles between: SLE vs NC, N-SLE vs NC, and SLE vs N-SLE. B Number of significantly different metabolites identified in each comparison group. C-E Heatmaps displaying significantly different metabolites between groups: (C) SLE vs NC, (D) N-SLE vs NC, (E) SLE vs N-SLE (Screening criteria: VIP ≥ 1, |FC| ≥ 1.5, and p ≤ 0.05). F-H Bubble plots: KEGG pathway enrichment analysis of differentially expressed metabolites: (F) SLE vs NC, (G) N-SLE vs NC, (H) SLE vs N-SLE