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. 2026 Apr 2;13(9):nwag205. doi: 10.1093/nsr/nwag205

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© The Author(s) 2026. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of China Science Publishing & Media Ltd.

This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted reuse, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

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Diagram comparing two sustainability research frameworks: systems science for planetary boundaries and social-ecological systems, and supply-demand equilibrium for natural carrying capacity, alongside four development stages of decision-oriented natural carrying capacity research in China. — NCC methodological frameworks and the four development stages of decision-oriented NCC research in China.