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. 2026 May 29;14:1809818. doi: 10.3389/fped.2026.1809818

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© 2026 Jo, Cho, Jun and Park.

This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

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Composite figure displays five heatmaps illustrating microbial taxa abundance across various groups; each heatmap uses a green-to-red scale for relative abundance. Panel A shows taxa abundance for numerous individuals, labeled on both axes. Panel B compares taxa between mothers and babies. Panel C contrasts mothers and babies in different birth modes. Panel D illustrates taxa distribution by maternal antibiotic intake. Panel E compares taxa by maternal feeding methods. Color intensity gradients represent abundance levels, with red indicating higher prevalence. Row labels list microbial taxa; column labels indicate groupings or sample IDs. — Heatmaps of species-group level in maternal and neonatal early fecal microbiota. (A) Individual presentations of maternal and early neonatal fecal microbiota. (B) Overall comparisons of maternal and early neonatal fecal microbiota in total. * statistically significantly different species between mother and neonate group (C) Comparisons of maternal and early neonatal fecal microbiota according to delivery mode. * statistically different species between mothers and vaginally delivered neonates (VD), # statistically significantly different species between mothers and neonates delivered by Cesarean Section (CS) (D) Comparisons of maternal and early neonatal fecal microbiota according to neonatal antibiotics exposure. * statistically different species between mothers and neonates with antibiotics, # statistically significantly different species between mothers and neonates without antibiotics (E) Comparisons of maternal and early neonatal fecal microbiota according to feeding mode. *statistically different species between mothers and neonates with breast milk-fed (BMF), # statistically significantly different species between mothers and neonates with formula-fed (FF) Color intensity indicates relative abundance. Subgroup analyses are exploratory because of the limited and unbalanced sample sizes.