Table 27.

Conceptual comparison of AI virtual companions and human companionship under a supplementary-use perspective.

Dimension	AI virtual companions: potential benefits and risks	Human companionship: distinctive strengths and limits	Supplementary-use design implications
Accessibility	24/7 online; globally accessible/relying on device net	Co-presence interaction; non-verbal feedback/having temporal and spatial limitations	Designing progressive emotional trials and supplementing fragmented periods
Emotional response	Fast learning; stable emotion recognition/rational algorithmized empathy	Complex emotions; genuine empathy/emotional fluctuations	Launching “human-AI emotional coaching” dual-track services industrially
Privacy security	Allowing for encrypting records but having data leakage risks	“Instant disappearance” upon communication but having personal risks	Formulating policies on “digital intimacy rights” to provide tiered open guidelines
Growth and learning	Continuous algorithm evolution/data bias	Growing together; rich experience/limited cognition	Exploring longitudinal cohort tracking for feedback-driven algorithmic fairness
Social acceptance	Emerging phenomenon; stigma and regulatory blank	Cultural mainstream; legal support	Setting up “digital intimate relationship” courses to eliminate stigma
Cost-effectiveness	Low marginal costs; with subscription/upgrade fees	Hidden monetary costs; high emotional investment/economic pressure	Combining design with industry for emotional subscription to reclaim high-value time for real human connections