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. 2026 May 5;14:172. doi: 10.1186/s40168-026-02416-7

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© The Author(s) 2026

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License, which permits any non-commercial use, sharing, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if you modified the licensed material. You do not have permission under this licence to share adapted material derived from this article or parts of it. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/.

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Fig. 4 — Microbial community traits of rhizosphere bacteria under Fpmd MR5 inoculation. a DI at 14 days post-inoculation (mean ± SD; n = 3). b Fpmd MR5 abundance in rhizosphere soils. c Phylogenetic diversity of the bacterial community (mean ± SD; n = 3). d Principal coordinate analysis (PCoA) of the bacterial community in MRT14 based on weighted UniFrac distances (P-values from PERMANOVA). e Volcano plot of differentially abundant bacterial OTUs in OE and RNAi lines following Fpmd MR5 inoculation (MRT14). f Co-occurrence network of the bacterial community in MRT14. Bulk: initial soil mixture before planting; MRT0: rhizosphere before Fpmd MR5 inoculation; MRT14: rhizosphere 14 days after Fpmd MR5 inoculation. HMO, OE microbiome (− MR5); HMR, RNAi microbiome (− MR5); FMO, OE microbiome (+ MR5); FMR, RNAi microbiome (+ MR5). ‘–MR5’: non-inoculated control; ‘ + MR5’: Fpmd MR5-inoculated. Black dots represent individual replicate values. ‘ns’ indicates no significant difference (two-sided Student’s t-test, P > 0.05). In b, *P < 0.05, **P < 0.01, ***P < 0.001. Different lowercase letters indicate significant differences (Tukey’s test, P ≤ 0.05)