Motivational pathways to problematic pornography use: A self-determination theory perspective

Abstract

The present exploratory study investigates associations between problematic pornography use (PPU; i.e., dysregulated and distressing use of pornography) and psychological outcomes within the framework of Self-Determination Theory (SDT) using conditional process analysis (N = 613, 75.7% male, mean age = 25.14 ± 4.41). PPU was positively associated with several pornography use motivations (notably stress reduction, emotional distraction, and fantasy), impulsivity, loneliness, psychological distress, and sexual dysfunction, and negatively associated with relationship satisfaction and sexual self-esteem. Being male, married, higher internet use frequency, and higher pornography viewing frequency were associated with higher levels of various motivations; female gender, being single, higher education, prior sexual intercourse experience, and higher sexual satisfaction were associated with lower levels. Exploratory conditional mediation analyses suggested that fantasy, lack of sexual satisfaction, and emotional distraction/suppression were the most consistent mediators of the relationships between relationship satisfaction, sexual self-esteem, and religious commitment with PPU, particularly at higher levels of psychological distress, loneliness, and sexual dysfunction. Other motivations (e.g., sexual curiosity, self-exploration) showed only sporadic, very small effects. Most indirect effects fell below the threshold for practical significance (|β| < 0.20), indicating that these motivational pathways are unlikely to be clinically useful intervention targets and play a minor mechanistic role, justifying research into alternative pathways. All findings are hypothesis-generating and require independent replication to better understand how different pornography use motivations would act differently at various levels of psychological vulnerabilities.

Highlights

• •Self-Determination Theory was applied to model the conditional pathways underlying problematic pornography use (PPU).
• •Distress, loneliness, and sexual dysfunction moderated motivational pathways to PPU.
• •Motivational pathways played a minor role and are unlikely to be clinically useful, justifying alternative pathway research.

1. Introduction

The widespread accessibility of internet pornography has altered patterns of sexual gratification and sexual behaviors across diverse sociocultural contexts (Bőthe et al., 2024; Vieira et al., 2026). Sexual gratification in the context of pornography use refers to the experience of sexual satisfaction or arousal, which a variety of psychological, emotional, or physical stimuli may drive. Many individuals engage with pornography for recreational or exploratory purposes, such as curiosity, sexual enhancement, or relational intimacy (Löfgren-Mårtenson & Månsson, 2010), but the degree of satisfaction experienced can vary widely based on the nature of the content, individual motivations, and the underlying psychological processes involved.

However, for some individuals, engagement with pornography may evolve into PPU, commonly conceptualized as a maladaptive pattern of compulsive use of pornographic content. PPU is characterized by diminished self-regulation, increased psychological distress, and negative emotional consequences (Kraus et al., 2018). Notably, problematic pornography use is increasingly understood as a manifestation of compulsive sexual behavior disorder (CSBD), which is classified as an impulse control disorder in the ICD-11 (rather than a behavioral addiction). Existing research has examined both recreational and PPU; however, the motivational and psychological processes underlying these pathways remain relatively understudied. A key area of interest is how psychological needs and motivational factors such as relationship satisfaction, sexual self-esteem, and moral values interact to predict and shape patterns of PPU (Gola et al., 2016; Grubbs et al., 2019).

1.1. Self-determination theory as a motivational framework

Self-Determination Theory (SDT; Deci & Ryan, 2000; Ryan & Deci, 2023) provides a robust theoretical framework for understanding behavioral dysregulation, including maladaptive engagement with digital sexual content. SDT conceptualizes human functioning in terms of the satisfaction of three basic psychological needs: autonomy (the experience of volition), competence (the experience of mastery), and relatedness (the experience of connection). The satisfaction of these needs lays the groundwork for intrinsically motivated behaviors that contribute to psychological well-being. In contrast, the frustration of these basic psychological needs may predispose individuals to adopt extrinsically regulated or compensatory behaviors, including substance use, compulsive sexual behavior, or other maladaptive coping strategies (Bőthe et al., 2022; Brand, Potenza, & Stark, 2022; Ryan & Deci, 2017).

From an SDT perspective, the quality of motivations- rather than merely the frequency of engagement in pornography use- is a critical determinant of psychological outcomes (Deci & Ryan, 1985). Autonomous motives (e.g., self-exploration, sexual curiosity) are generally associated with more adaptive psychological functioning. In contrast, controlled motives (e.g., avoidance of distress, emotional suppression, or social pressure) may predispose individuals to dysregulation and psychological distress (Deci & Ryan, 2000; Ryan & Deci, 2023). Nevertheless, empirical research examining the distinct roles of autonomous versus controlled motivation in PPU remains limited, with only a few studies directly addressing these motivational mechanisms in this context (Bőthe et al., 2021).

1.2. Psychological needs and pornography use

1.2.1. Relatedness and compensatory consumption

The need for relatedness involves feelings of belongingness and interpersonal connection. Research suggests that lower relationship satisfaction and higher loneliness are consistent predictors of PPU, and their effects may be mediated by compensatory motives such as emotional distraction or fantasy-driven engagement, or the use of pornography to alleviate feelings of emotional inadequacy (Maddox et al., 2011; Mestre-Bach & Potenza, 2023). Religious commitment has been linked to lower frequency of pornography use, although this association is not always straightforward and may involve moral incongruence (Perry, 2018). However, individuals with strong religious commitment who engage with pornography may experience significant psychological or moral distress due to value incongruence (Grubbs et al., 2019; Perry & Schleifer, 2017), which challenges a purely dysregulation-based view of PPU. Similarly, psychological distress has been shown to amplify the use of pornography as an avoidant coping strategy, potentially strengthening the link between need frustration and PPU (Gola et al., 2016; Kardefelt-Winther, 2014). Overall, these findings suggest that deficiencies in relatedness may increase vulnerability to PPU through emotionally avoidant motivational processes.

1.2.2. Competence and sexual self-esteem

The need for competence refers to an individual's perception of efficacy and mastery within a given domain. While not universal, low sexual self-esteem and sexual dissatisfaction and dysfunction have been consistently associated with higher pornography use in sexual contexts, often driven by motives such as stress reduction or sexual fantasy (Bőthe et al., 2021; Kraus et al., 2018; Willoughby et al., 2021). Although such strategies may temporarily buffer perceived sexual inadequacy, they are consistent with negative reinforcement processes that maintain reliance on avoidance-based coping. Therefore, dissatisfaction with competence-related needs may indirectly contribute to PPU through maladaptive motivational regulation.

1.2.3. Autonomy and impulsivity

Autonomy reflects the extent to which behavior is experienced as volitional and self-endorsed. In the context of pornography use, trait impulsivity has been associated with higher severity of PPU (Antons & Brand, 2018). Individuals with higher levels of impulsivity may engage in pornography use with limited reflective processing, reflecting reduced autonomy in behavioral regulation. Consequently, deficits in autonomy may increase vulnerability to PPU through emotionally driven motivational processes.

1.2.4. Motivations for pornography use as mediators

Motivational processes represent a plausible mechanism through which the frustration of psychological needs may influence problematic behavior. For instance, Bőthe et al. (2021) identified eight distinct motivations for pornography use: sexual pleasure, sexual curiosity, fantasy, emotional distraction/suppression, stress reduction, boredom avoidance, self-exploration, and lack of sexual satisfaction. These motives can be conceptually aligned with the SDT continuum, with some (e.g., self-exploration and curiosity) reflecting relatively autonomous regulation, whereas others (e.g., stress reduction or emotional distraction) reflect more controlled or compensatory forms of regulation. However, relatively little research has examined how experiences related to basic psychological needs shape these motivational profiles and, in turn, how such motivations contribute to PPU.

Although SDT has increasingly been applied to the study of pornography use and other online sexual behaviors, existing research has primarily focused on general associations between psychological need satisfaction and the frequency or severity of pornography use. Prior studies have also examined specific motivations underlying pornography use. However, the integrative mechanisms linking psychological need- related experiences, distinct motivational pathways, and PPU remain insufficiently understood. In particular, few studies have simultaneously examined how multiple pornography use motivations function as mediators between need- related predictors and PPU while also considering individual vulnerability factors that may strengthen or weaken these pathways.

1.3. The present study

Addressing this gap, the present exploratory study applies a conditional process framework grounded in SDT to generate hypotheses about how need-related predictors influence PPU through specific motivations for pornography use and how these indirect effects vary across individual differences. Specifically, two need-related predictors—relationship satisfaction (relatedness), sexual self-esteem (competence), and one value-based predictor, religious commitment (moral or spiritual relatedness)—were proposed to influence PPU through eight motivations for pornography use, conceptualized as mediators linking psychological need- related experiences to problematic behavior. In addition, we examined whether individual differences in impulsivity, psychological distress, loneliness, and sexual dysfunction moderate these indirect effects. These moderators were included to identify potential interactions that could be tested in future confirmatory research. Accordingly, the study addressed the following exploratory research questions:

RQ1. Do motivations for pornography use mediate the relationship between basic psychological need-related variables (e.g., relationship satisfaction, sexual self-esteem, and religious commitment) and PPU?

RQ2. Are these indirect effects moderated by psychological factors such as distress, impulsivity, loneliness, or sexual dysfunction, thereby constituting conditional mediation?

By examining these relationships, the present study aims to generate hypotheses about how psychological needs contribute to motivational pathways leading to PPU. In doing so, it extends SDT-based perspectives on behavioral dysregulation and contributes to a more integrative understanding of how psychological needs, motivations, and individual differences interact in predicting PPU. All reported findings should be interpreted as exploratory and require independent replication. Fig. 1 presents the conceptual model of the study.

Fig. 1.

Conceptual model of conditional mediation based on Self-Determination Theory (SDT).

2. Method

2.1. Participants and procedure

A total of 613 individuals participated in the study. The majority were male (75.7%) and single (69.5%). Participants had a mean age of 25.14 years (SD = 4.41). Most held a bachelor's degree (43.1%) and reported using the internet for 4–6 h per day (33.4%). Regarding pornography use, 24.8% watching pornography once during the past month, and 67.2% indicated having had at least one sexual experience. Additionally, 24.8% reported being satisfied with their sexual experiences. Table 1 presents the complete demographic characteristics of the sample.

Table 1.

Demographic features of the participants.

Features	N	%
Gender
Male	464	75.7
Female	149	24.3
Educational attainment
Less than high school	20	3.3
Completed high school	85	13.9
Associate degree	39	6.4
Bachelor degree	264	43.1
Master degree	155	25.3
Ph.D.	50	8.2
Marital status
Single	426	69.5
Married	187	30.5
Internet use frequency
Less than 2 h	33	5.4
Between 2 and 4 h	173	28.2
Between 4 and 6 h	205	33.4
Between 6 and 8 h	104	17.0
More than 8 h	98	16.0
Porn watching frequency
Never	124	20.2
Once in the past six months	112	18.3
Once in the past month	152	24.8
Once in the last week	107	17.5
Several times in the last week	92	15.0
Every day or almost every day	26	4.2
The experience of having sex
No	201	32.8
Yes	412	67.2
Sexual satisfaction
I was not satisfied at all	124	20.2
I was somewhat satisfied	139	22.7
I was fairly satisfied	146	23.8
I was satisfied	152	24.8
I was very satisfied	52	8.5

The study received ethical approval from the first author's university and was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki (World Medical Association, 2025). Data were collected using a convenience sampling method from the general population through widely used social media platforms (e.g., Instagram, Telegram). A web-based survey link was provided, and participants were informed of the study's aims and that participation was voluntary. After providing informed consent, participants were assured that their responses would remain confidential and would be used solely for research purposes.

2.2. Measures

Socio-demographic form. Demographic information was collected using questions assessing age, gender, educational level, employment status, and marital status. In addition, two single-item measures were used for descriptive purposes (Table 1, Table 2 only). Prior sexual intercourse experience was assessed with the question: “Have you ever had sexual intercourse?” (0 = no, 1 = yes). Sexual satisfaction was assessed with the question: “How satisfied were you with your sexual experience?” rated on a 5-point scale from 1 (not at all satisfied) to 5 (very satisfied). These items were not used as moderators in the conditional mediation analyses.

Table 2.

Demographic Features and Their Spearman's Associations with Motivations for Pornography Use.

	Sexual pleasure	Sexual curiosity	Fantasy	Boredom avoidance	lack of sexual satisfaction	Emotional distraction/ suppression	Stress reduction	Self-exploration
Age	0.01	0.06	0.02	−0.01	−0.01	0.01	0.01	0.01
Gender	0.28⁎⁎	0.08⁎	0.29⁎⁎	0.26⁎⁎	0.28⁎⁎	0.30⁎⁎	0.32⁎⁎	0.09⁎
Educational attainment	−0.06	−0.04	−0.02	−0.07	−0.04	−0.04	−0.01	−0.09⁎
Marital status	−0.19⁎⁎	−0.14⁎⁎	−0.14⁎⁎	−0.11⁎⁎	−0.13⁎⁎	−0.14⁎⁎	−0.10⁎	−0.20⁎⁎
Internet use frequency	0.11⁎⁎	0.01	0.07	0.09⁎	0.08⁎	0.07	0.07	0.09⁎
Porn watching frequency	0.72⁎⁎	0.38⁎⁎	0.53⁎⁎	0.49⁎⁎	0.63⁎⁎	0.55⁎⁎	0.58⁎⁎	0.47⁎⁎
The experience of having sex	−0.04	0.01	−0.09⁎	−0.07	−0.02	−0.06	−0.04	−0.06
Sexual satisfaction	−0.15⁎⁎	0.01	−0.16⁎⁎	−0.10⁎	−0.23⁎⁎	−0.12⁎⁎	−0.13⁎⁎	−0.07

Note. Gender (male = 1; female = 0), marital status (single = 0; married = 1), having sex (no = 0, yes = 1). * p < .05, ** p < .01, *** p < .001.

Problematic Pornography Consumption Scale (short form; PPCS-6; Bőthe et al., 2018; Persian version: Alidost et al., 2022). The PPCS-6 was used to assess the level of PPU. The scale consists of six items rated on a 7-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (never) to 7 (always). Each item reflects one component of pornography addiction based on the Griffiths's (2005) addiction model: salience (e.g., “I felt that porn is an important part of my life”), tolerance (e.g., “I felt that I had to watch more and more porn for satisfaction”), mood modification (e.g., “I released my tension by watching porn”), conflict (e.g., “I neglected other leisure activities as a result of watching porn”), withdrawal (e.g. “I became stressed when something prevented me from watching porn”), and relapse (e.g. “When I vowed not to watch porn anymore, I could only do it for a short period of time”). Higher scores indicate a higher level of PPU. In this study, the Cronbach's alpha was 0.88. Although the PPCS-6 is based on an addiction framework (Griffiths, 2005), we acknowledge that problematic pornography use is not formally classified as an addiction in current diagnostic systems (e.g., ICD-11; it falls under compulsive sexual behavior disorder, an impulse control disorder). The scale is used here as a validated measure of dysregulated pornography use, not as a clinical diagnosis of addiction.

Pornography Use Motivations Scale (PUMS; Bőthe et al., 2021; Persian version: Akbari et al., 2026). The PUMS was used to assess various motivations for pornography use. The scale consists of items rated on a 7-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (never) to 7 (all the time). It measures eight distinct motivational dimensions: sexual curiosity (e.g., “I watch porn to learn new things.”), sexual pleasure (e.g., “I watch porn to arouse myself sexually.”), fantasy (e.g., “I watch porn because I can be a part of things that I cannot experience in real life”), boredom avoidance (e.g., “I watch porn because I am bored”), Lack of Sexual Satisfaction (e.g., “I watch porn because my sexual life is not satisfying”), Emotional Distraction/Suppression (e.g., “I watch porn to suppress my bad mood.”), stress reduction (e.g., “I watch porn because it calms me down”) and self-exploration (e.g., “I watch porn to get to know my own sexual desires better.”). Because each PUMS subscale contains only three items and Cronbach's α is known to underestimate reliability under tau-inequivalence, we estimated internal consistency using McDonald's ω. Values ranged from 0.64 to 0.77, indicating acceptable reliability for all subscales in this exploratory study.

Religious Commitment Inventory-10 (RCI-10; Worthington Jr et al., 2003; Persian version: Hafizi et al., 2017). The RCI-10 was used to assess an individual's religious commitment. This scale measures both interpersonal and intrapersonal dimensions of religious commitment, reflecting the extent to which individuals adhere to their religious values, beliefs, and practices. The instrument consists of 10 items rated on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (not at all true of me) to 5 (totally true of me). The scale includes six intrapersonal religious commitment items (e.g., “My religious beliefs lie behind my whole approach to life”) and four interpersonal religious commitment items (e.g.,” I keep well informed about my local religious group and have some influence in its decisions”). In the present study, Cronbach's alpha coefficients were 0.95 for the total scale, 0.93 for the intrapersonal subscale, and 0.92 for the interpersonal subscale.

Relationship Assessment Scale (RAS-7; Hendrick, 1988; Persian version: Maroufizadeh et al., 2018). The RAS-7 was used to assess overall relationship satisfaction. The scale consists of seven items (e.g., “How often does your partner meet your needs”), rated on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (low satisfaction) to 5 (high satisfaction). Higher scores indicate greater relationship satisfaction. In the present study, the Cronbach's alpha was 0.89.

Sexual Satisfaction (Mark et al., 2014). Sexual satisfaction was assessed using a single-item measure evaluating participants' satisfaction with their sexual relationship (e.g., “How satisfied were you with your partner in the past two months?”). The item was scored on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (not at all satisfied) to 5 (very satisfied). Higher scores indicate greater sexual satisfaction.

Depression, Anxiety, and Stress Scale, Short Form (DASS-9; Yusoff, 2013; Persian version: Akbari et al., 2025). The DASS-9 was used to assess three dimensions of psychological distress, including depression (e.g., “I felt that I had nothing to look forward to”), anxiety (e.g., “I tended to over-react to situations”), and stress (e.g., “I experienced trembling”). Each dimension consists of three items rated on a 4-point Likert scale from 0 (did not apply to me at all) to 3 (applied to me very much or most of the time), with higher scores indicating greater distress. In the present study, Cronbach's alpha coefficients were 0.84 for the total scale, 0.65 for the depression subscale, 0.73 for the anxiety subscale, and 0.67 for the stress subscale.

Arizona Sexual Experience Scale (ASEX; McGahuey et al., 2000; Persian version: Raisi et al., 2025). The ASEX was used to assess sexual dysfunction. This scale consists of five items measuring: sex drive (e.g., “How strong is your sex drive), arousal (e.g., “How are you sexually aroused”), vaginal lubrication or penile erection (e.g., “Can you easily get and keep erection/How easily does your vagina become moist or wet during sex”), ability to reach orgasm (e.g., “How easily can you reach an orgasm”), and satisfaction from orgasm (e.g., “Are your orgasm satisfying”). Higher scores indicate greater levels of sexual dysfunction. In the present study, the scale demonstrated acceptable internal consistency (Cronbach's α = 0.70).

Loneliness: Three-Item UCLA Loneliness Scale (Hughes et al., 2004; Persian items selected from the Farsi UCLA Loneliness Scale Version 3: Zarei et al., 2016). The Three-Item UCLA Loneliness Scale was used to assess subjective feelings of loneliness and perceived social isolation. The scale consists of three items rated on a three-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (hardly ever or never) to 3 (often). Higher scores indicate greater loneliness. In the present study, the scale demonstrated acceptable internal consistency (Cronbach's α = 0.74).

Sexual self-esteem: Sexual Self-Esteem Subscale of the Multidimensional Sexual Self-Concept Questionnaire (MSSCQ; Snell, 2003; Persian items selected from Ziaei et al., 2013). The sexual self-esteem subscale of the MSSCQ was used to assess individuals' positive evaluations of themselves as sexual persons. This subscale consists of five items rated on a Likert-type scale, with higher scores indicating greater sexual self-esteem. In the present study, the subscale demonstrated acceptable internal consistency (Cronbach's α = 0.86).

Impulsivity: Barratt Impulsiveness Scale-11 (BIS-11; Patton et al., 1995; Persian version: Ekhtiari et al., 2008). The BIS-11 was used to assess impulsivity. This scale measures impulsivity as a multidimensional construct, including attentional, motor, and non-planning impulsiveness. Items are rated on a four-point Likert scale, with higher scores indicating greater impulsivity. In the present study, the scale demonstrated acceptable internal consistency (Cronbach's α = 0.74).

2.3. Data analysis

All statistical analyses were conducted using Jamovi (version 2.3.28). Preliminary analyses included descriptive statistics and the Pearson product-moment correlation to examine relationships among key demographic variables, pornography use frequency, motivations for use, and indicators of PPU, thereby addressing the research questions. A series of moderated mediation analyses was conducted using advanced mediation models implemented in Jamovi. These models test the effect of independent variables on a dependent variable through a mediator, conditional on a moderator that influences the path from the independent variable to the mediator.

Relationship satisfaction, sexual self-esteem, and religious commitment were modeled as independent variables (predictors). At the same time, PPU served as the dependent variable. Eight motivations for pornography use (e.g., sexual pleasure, fantasy, boredom avoidance, and stress reduction) were examined as mediators. Psychological distress, impulsivity, loneliness, and sexual dysfunction were entered as moderators of specific mediation paths, as suggested by prior literature and theoretical assumptions derived from SDT. Bootstrapped 95% confidence intervals based on 5000 resamples were used to estimate indirect and conditional indirect effects. Indirect effects were considered significant when the bootstrapped 95% confidence interval did not include zero. All variables were mean-centered prior to creating the interaction term, and moderation effects were probed at low (−1 SD), mean, and high (+1 SD) levels of the moderator.

All analyses in this study are exploratory. No hypotheses were pre-determined, and the research questions were intentionally broad to allow for hypothesis generation. Given the exploratory nature and the large number of statistical tests (including correlations and conditional indirect effects), we did not apply a strict multiple comparison correction (e.g., Bonferroni). Such corrections would be overly conservative, increasing Type II error and potentially obscuring small but theoretically informative effects that may be tested in future research. Instead, all tested effects are reported in full (no selective reporting).

3. Results

3.1. Correlational analysis

Correlational analyses are presented in Table 2, Table 3. As shown in Table 2, gender (male) and higher pornography viewing frequency showed the strongest positive associations with most pornography use motivations. Being single was associated with lower motivation. Age and educational attainment showed negligible correlations.

Table 3.

Correlation matrix of the variables of interest.

	1	2	3	4	5	6	7		8		9		10		11		12		13		14		15		16
1	–
2	−0.16***	–
3	−0.01	0.01	–
4	−0.27***	0.32***	0.05	–
5	0.16***	−0.20***	−0.03	−0.22***	–
6	0.25***	−0.19***	−0.05	−0.29***	0.53***	–
7	0.27***	0.00	0.01	0.05	0.08*	0.08*	–
8	0.22***	−0.10**	−0.11	−0.25**	0.37***	0.53***	0.09*		–
9	0.62***	−0.17***	−0.17***	−0.26***	0.16***	0.19***	−0.18***		0.21***		–
10	0.22***	0.01	−0.10*	−0.02	0.09*	0.08*	−0.04		0.05		0.32***		–
11	0.64***	−0.20***	−0.09*	−0.23***	0.22***	0.25***	−0.16***		0.17***		0.65***		0.39***		–
12	0.60***	−0.08*	−0.04	−0.22***	0.15***	0.23***	−0.12**		0.21***		0.48***		0.25***		0.44***		–
13	0.59***	−0.31***	−0.11**	−0.32***	0.20***	0.22***	−0.18***		0.17**		0.74***		0.30***		0.71***		0.46***		–
14	0.69***	−0.10**	−0.02	−0.25***	0.22***	0.30***	−0.18***		0.22***		0.53***		0.20***		0.51***		0.70***		0.51***		–
15	0.76***	−0.11**	−0.03	−0.19***	0.16***	0.23***	−0.20***		0.17***		0.56***		0.21***		0.57***		0.61***		0.54***		0.84***		–
16	0.37***	−0.09*	−0.15***	−0.09*	0.16***	0.18***	−0.03		0.12*		0.56***		0.65***		0.58***		0.36***		0.53***		0.33***		0.34***		–

Note. 1 = problematic pornography use; 2 = relationship satisfaction; 3 = religious commitment; 4 = sexual self-esteem; 5 = loneliness; 6 = psychological distress; 7 = sexual dysfunction; 8 = impulsivity; 9 = sexual pleasure; 10 = sexual curiosity; 11 = Fantasy; 12 = boredom avoidance; 13 = lack of sexual satisfaction; 14 = emotional distraction/suppression; 15 = stress reduction; 16 = self-exploration. * p < .05, ** p < .01, *** p < .001.

As shown in Table 3, PPU was most strongly associated with stress reduction, emotional distraction/suppression, and fantasy. Smaller associations were observed with loneliness, psychological distress, impulsivity, sexual curiosity, and sexual dysfunction. PPU was negatively associated with relationship satisfaction and sexual self-esteem, but not with religious commitment. Given the exploratory nature, all correlations should be interpreted cautiously.

3.2. Conditional mediation analysis

Table 4 summarizes all statistically detectable conditional indirect effects from the exploratory moderated mediation analyses. Fantasy was the most consistent mediator: it transmitted the effects of relationship satisfaction and sexual self-esteem onto PPU across all levels of sexual dysfunction, and the effect of religious commitment at low and moderate levels. Lack of sexual satisfaction similarly mediated the effects of relationship satisfaction and sexual self-esteem across all levels of psychological distress. Emotional distraction/suppression mediated the effect of sexual self-esteem across all levels of loneliness, but only at high loneliness for relationship satisfaction and religious commitment. Boredom avoidance and stress reduction were more conditional on relationship satisfaction, appearing primarily at higher levels of psychological distress. Sexual curiosity and self-exploration produced only sporadic, very small effects.

Table 4.

Summary of Statistically Detectable Conditional Indirect Effects (Exploratory Moderated Mediation Analyses).

Mediator	Independent Variable	Moderator	Levels with detectable indirect effect (p < .05)	β range
Sexual curiosity	Religious commitment	Impulsivity	Moderate	−0.04
Fantasy	Relationship satisfaction	Sexual dysfunction	Low, Moderate, High	−0.14 to −0.09
	Sexual self-esteem	Sexual dysfunction	Low, Moderate, High	−0.15 to −0.05
	Religious commitment	Sexual dysfunction	Low, Moderate	−0.08 to −0.05
Boredom avoidance	Relationship satisfaction	Psychological distress	High	−0.10
	Sexual self-esteem	Psychological distress	Moderate, High	−0.17 to −0.07
Lack of sexual satisfaction	Relationship satisfaction	Psychological distress	Low, Moderate, High	−0.22 to −0.08
	Sexual self-esteem	Psychological distress	Low, Moderate, High	−0.21 to −0.07
Emotional distraction/suppression	Relationship satisfaction	Loneliness	High	−0.09
	Sexual self-esteem	Loneliness	Low, Moderate, High	−0.17 to −0.10
	Religious commitment	Loneliness	High	−0.09
Stress reduction	Relationship satisfaction	Psychological distress	High	−0.12
	Sexual self-esteem	Psychological distress	Moderate, High	−0.13 to −0.09
	Religious commitment	Psychological distress	High	−0.12
Self-exploration	Relationship satisfaction	Sexual dysfunction	Moderate	−0.03
	Sexual self-esteem	Sexual dysfunction	Low, Moderate	−0.07 to −0.03
	Religious commitment	Sexual dysfunction	Moderate	−0.03

Note. Only indirect effects with p < .05 are shown.

β = standardized indirect effect. Effect sizes with ∣β∣ < 0.20∣β∣ < 0.20 are very small and fell below the threshold for practical significance (Ferguson, 2009).

Full detailed results for each mediator and moderator are available in Table 5, Table 6, Table 7.

Following Ferguson's (2009) guidelines for practical significance, effects with |β| < 0.20 are generally not considered practically significant. In our results, only the indirect effects of lack of sexual satisfaction at higher levels of psychological distress (at high distress and for sexual self-esteem) exceeded this threshold. All other statistically detectable indirect effects fell below 0.20, indicating that while they may be statistically reliable, they are very small in magnitude and may lack practical importance. Given the exploratory nature and the large number of tests, these findings should be interpreted as hypothesis-generating and require independent replication. Full detailed results for each mediator, along with their corresponding moderators, are available in Table 5, Table 6, Table 7.

Table 5.

A conditional mediation analysis: Relationship satisfaction as the predictor of PPU.

Mediator	Moderator	Interaction Effect			Direct Effect (Low)			Indirect Effect (Low)			Total Effect (Low)			Direct Effect (mean)			Indirect Effect (Mean)			Total Effect (Mean)			Direct Effect (High)			Indirect Effect (High)			Total Effect (High)
		β	z	p	β	z	p	β	z	p	β	z	p	β	z	p	β	z	p	β	z	p	β	z	p	β	z	p	β	z	p
Sexual curiosity	Impulsivity	.05	0.90	0.366	-0.16	-1.68	0.092	-0.02	-0.46	0.646	-0.17	-1.64	0.101	-0.26	-5.79	< .001	-0.04	-0.34	0.732	-0.26	-5.67	< .001	-0.26	-2.81	0.005	0.02	0.49	0.622	-0.26	-2.50	0.012
Fantasy	Sexual dysfunction	.12	3.17	0.002	-.15	-3.68	< .001	-.21	-6.13	< .001	-.39	-7.31	< .001	-.11	-3.87	< .001	-.13	-5.64	< .001	-.25	-6.90	< .001	-.08	-1.89	0.058	-.05	-1.98	0.048	-.13	-2.52	0.012
Boredom avoidance	Psychological distress	-.14	-3.78	< .001	-.11	-2.36	0.018	-.01	-0.18	0.858	-.08	-1.55	0.121	-.11	-3.50	< .001	-.07	-3.73	< .001	-.20	-5.12	< .001	-.11	-2.72	0.006	-.17	-5.40	< .001	-.31	-6.09	< .001
Lack of sexual satisfaction	Psychological distress	-.08	-2.29	0.022	-.04	-0.82	0.41	-.07	-3.11	0.002	-.08	-1.55	0.121	-.06	-1.71	0.086	-.13	-6.21	< .001	-.20	-5.12	< .001	-.07	-1.73	0.083	-.21	-6.43	< .001	-.32	-6.09	< .001
Emotional distraction/ suppression	Loneliness	-.04	-1.24	0.212	-.08	-1.93	0.054	-.10	-2.85	0.004	-.18	-3.25	0.001	-.10	-3.37	< .001	-.14	-5.21	< .001	-.24	-6.12	< .001	-.11	-2.99	0.003	-.17	-4.80	< .001	-.29	-5.63	< .001
Stress reduction	Psychological distress	-.05	-1.36	0.174	-.07	-1.71	0.088	-.04	-1.31	0.191	-.08	-1.55	0.121	-.11	-4.35	< .001	-.09	-3.15	0.002	-.20	-5.13	< .001	-.15	-4.74	< .001	-.13	-3.37	< .001	-.32	-6.10	< .001
Self-exploration	Sexual dysfunction	.10	2.60	0.009	-.29	-6.20	< .001	-.07	-3.26	0.001	-.38	-7.31	< .001	-.22	-6.32	< .001	-.03	-2.17	0.03	-.25	-6.89	< .001	-.13	-2.83	0.005	.01	0.23	0.817	-.13	-2.51	0.012

Note. Low (-1SD below the mean), Moderate (mean), High (+1SD above the mean).

Table 6.

A conditional mediation analysis: Sexual self-esteem as the predictor of PPU.

Mediator	Moderator	Interaction Effect			Direct Effect (Low)			Indirect Effect (Low)			Total Effect (Low)			Direct Effect (mean)			Indirect Effect (Mean)			Total Effect (Mean)			Direct Effect (High)			Indirect Effect (High)			Total Effect (High)
		β	z	p	β	z	p	β	z	p	β	z	p	β	z	p	β	z	p	β	z	p	β	z	p	β	z	p	β	z	p
Sexual curiosity	Impulsivity	.05	0.90	0.366	-0.16	-1.68	0.092	-0.02	-0.46	0.646	-0.17	-1.64	0.101	-0.26	-5.79	< .001	-0.04	-0.34	0.732	-0.26	-5.67	< .001	-0.26	-2.81	0.005	0.02	0.49	0.622	-0.26	-2.50	0.012
Fantasy	Sexual dysfunction	.12	3.17	0.002	-.15	-3.68	< .001	-.21	-6.13	< .001	-.39	-7.31	< .001	-.11	-3.87	< .001	-.13	-5.64	< .001	-.25	-6.90	< .001	-.08	-1.89	0.058	-.05	-1.98	0.048	-.13	-2.52	0.012
Boredom avoidance	Psychological distress	-.14	-3.78	< .001	-.11	-2.36	0.018	-.01	-0.18	0.858	-.08	-1.55	0.121	-.11	-3.50	< .001	-.07	-3.73	< .001	-.20	-5.12	< .001	-.11	-2.72	0.006	-.17	-5.40	< .001	-.31	-6.09	< .001
Lack of sexual satisfaction	Psychological distress	-.08	-2.29	0.022	-.04	-0.82	0.41	-.07	-3.11	0.002	-.08	-1.55	0.121	-.06	-1.71	0.086	-.13	-6.21	< .001	-.20	-5.12	< .001	-.07	-1.73	0.083	-.21	-6.43	< .001	-.32	-6.09	< .001
Emotional distraction/ suppression	Loneliness	-.04	-1.24	0.212	-.08	-1.93	0.054	-.10	-2.85	0.004	-.18	-3.25	0.001	-.10	-3.37	< .001	-.14	-5.21	< .001	-.24	-6.12	< .001	-.11	-2.99	0.003	-.17	-4.80	< .001	-.29	-5.63	< .001
Stress reduction	Psychological distress	-.05	-1.36	0.174	-.07	-1.71	0.088	-.04	-1.31	0.191	-.08	-1.55	0.121	-.11	-4.35	< .001	-.09	-3.15	0.002	-.20	-5.13	< .001	-.15	-4.74	< .001	-.13	-3.37	< .001	-.32	-6.10	< .001
Self-exploration	Sexual dysfunction	.10	2.60	0.009	-.29	-6.20	< .001	-.07	-3.26	0.001	-.38	-7.31	< .001	-.22	-6.32	< .001	-.03	-2.17	0.03	-.25	-6.89	< .001	-.13	-2.83	0.005	.01	0.23	0.817	-.13	-2.51	0.012

Note. Low (-1SD below the mean), Moderate (mean), High (+1SD above the mean).

Table 7.

A conditional mediation analysis: Religious commitment as the predictor of PPU.

Mediator	Moderator	Interaction Effect			Direct Effect (Low)			Indirect Effect (Low)			Total Effect (Low)			Direct Effect (mean)			Indirect Effect (Mean)			Total Effect (Mean)			Direct Effect (High)			Indirect Effect (High)			Total Effect (High)
		β	z	p	β	z	p	β	z	p	β	z	p	β	z	p	β	z	p	β	z	p	β	z	p	β	z	p	β	z	p
Sexual curiosity	Impulsivity	-0.01	-0.21	0.833	-0.06	-0.64	0.519	0.01	0.15	0.88	-0.06	-0.61	0.537	0.03	0.65	0.519	-0.04	-2.73	0.006	0.01	-0.09	0.929	0.10	1.13	0.26	-0.01	-0.14	0.885	0.10	1.03	0.303
Fantasy	Sexual dysfunction	.03	0.95	0.34	.05	1.41	0.156	-.08	-2.28	0.022	-.03	-0.64	0.521	.04	1.58	0.113	-.05	-2.14	0.032	-.01	-0.16	0.872	.03	0.85	0.392	-.02	-0.82	0.407	.02	0.37	0.709
Boredom avoidance	Psychological distress	-.04	-1.22	0.222	.02	0.46	0.645	.01	0.27	0.78	.03	0.60	0.545	.01	0.61	0.542	-.01	-0.80	0.424	-.01	-0.07	0.937	.01	0.42	0.674	-.04	-1.37	0.17	-.03	-0.67	0.5
Lack of sexual satisfaction	Psychological distress	-.04	-1.22	0.222	.02	0.46	0.645	.01	0.27	0.78	.03	0.60	0.545	.01	0.61	0.542	-.01	-0.80	0.424	-.01	-0.07	0.937	.01	0.42	0.674	-.04	-1.37	0.17	-.03	-0.67	0.5
Emotional distraction/ suppression	Loneliness	-.07	-2.02	0.043	-.04	-0.99	0.320	.01	0.34	0.732	-.02	-0.49	0.624	-.09	-3.14	0.002	-.04	-1.52	0.126	-.13	-3.37	< .001	-.14	-3.46	< .001	-.09	-2.50	0.012	-.24	-4.30	< .001
Stress reduction	Psychological distress	-.09	-2.36	0.018	.01	0.22	0.825	.01	0.39	0.693	.04	0.75	0.449	-.06	-2.31	0.021	-.04	-1.76	0.078	-.11	-2.88	0.004	-.12	-3.58	< .001	-.12	-2.97	0.003	-.26	-5.01	< .001
Self-exploration	Sexual dysfunction	.01	0.33	0.736	-.19	-4.20	< .001	-.04	-1.83	0.066	-.24	-4.71	< .001	-.12	-3.54	< .001	-.03	-2.15	0.031	-.15	-4.16	< .001	-.04	-0.95	0.341	-.021	-1.27	0.202	-.07	-1.31	0.188

Note. Low (-1SD below the mean), Moderate (mean), High (+1SD above the mean).

4. Discussion

Drawing upon Self-Determination Theory (SDT; Deci & Ryan, 2012; Ryan & Deci, 2020), this exploratory study investigated how deficits in core psychological needs and value-based factors (religious commitment), specifically relationship satisfaction, sexual self-esteem, and religious commitment, may predict PPU through distinct motivational pathways, and how psychological vulnerabilities may moderate these relationships. The observed patterns are consistent with a conditional process model in which the indirect effects of need frustration on PPU depend on individual differences in contextually relevant risk factors. This pattern offers preliminary insight for a more nuanced understanding of PPU as a form of compulsive sexual behavior within motivational frameworks. It highlights the potential importance of contextual vulnerabilities in shaping maladaptive sexual behaviors.

4.1. Basic psychological needs and PPU: Indirect, contextualized pathways

The findings were consistent with SDT, which posits that unmet needs for relatedness and competence undermine well-being and increase the likelihood of engaging in maladaptive coping strategies (Ryan & Deci, 2017). Specifically, lower levels of relationship satisfaction and sexual self-esteem were associated with stronger endorsement of maladaptive motivations for pornography use, which in turn were associated with greater PPU. These patterns are consistent with prior research indicating that intimacy deficits and diminished sexual self-concept are associated with compensatory sexual behaviors (Bőthe et al., 2022; Maas et al., 2018). Notably, religious commitment was not directly associated with PPU; however, it showed detectable indirect effects through specific pornography use motivations, particularly under certain psychological conditions. This pattern, characterized by an indirect-only effect, suggests that religiosity may function less as a direct behavioral restraint and more as a motivational anchor shaped by individual values and vulnerabilities. These findings offer preliminary insight in light of moral incongruence theory, which posits that PPU often stems from the conflict between sexual behavior and internalized moral or spiritual standards rather than the frequency of the behavior itself. In line with this framework, our results suggest that for individuals with high religious commitment, pornography use may become motivationally and emotionally salient due to its incongruence with their value system. By identifying these motivational pathways, the present study provides exploratory evidence consistent with moral incongruence models, illustrating how value-based commitments may translate into problematic outcomes through distinct motivational mechanisms rather than directly influencing behavior.

4.2. Differential role of pornography use motivations

The motivations for pornography use exhibited distinct patterns of association with PPU, consistent with SDT's distinction between controlled and autonomous regulation (Weinstein & Ryan, 2010). Controlled motivations, such as stress reduction, emotional distraction, and boredom avoidance, showed detectable but generally small mediation effects. These forms of motivation reflect compensatory coping strategies aimed at alleviating negative affect (Kardefelt-Winther, 2014), and their association with PPU suggests a dysregulated trajectory rooted in emotional avoidance. In contrast, autonomous forms of motivation, such as curiosity and self-exploration, were less strongly related to PPU. This pattern aligns with the SDT proposition that intrinsically motivated behaviors are less likely to result in maladaptive outcomes (Ryan & Deci, 2020). However, it is important to note that, within the context of PPU, the autonomous motives may become risk factors when paired with need frustration or reduced behavioral control. This underscores the nuanced and context-dependent nature of motivation–behavior dynamics in the development of PPU. Notably, most of these indirect effects were very small in magnitude (|β| < 0.20) and fell below conventional thresholds for practical significance (Ferguson, 2009), and the implications of this pattern warrant elaboration from both research and clinical standpoints. From a clinical perspective, this pattern suggests that the examined motivational pathways are unlikely to represent primary targets for intervention, as changes in these mechanisms would be expected to yield only modest effects. From a research standpoint, the findings suggest that these motivations may play a relatively minor role in the processes linking the constructs studied, and that other unmeasured mechanisms may account for a greater proportion of the observed associations. Accordingly, these indirect effects should be interpreted as statistically detectable but of limited practical relevance, and future work may benefit from prioritizing alternative explanatory pathways with stronger effect sizes.

4.3. Moderated pathways: The role of psychological vulnerabilities

The conditional mediation model suggested that the effects of unmet psychological needs were not uniform but were moderated by individuals' psychological vulnerability, consistent with the risk-amplification framework (Brand et al., 2019). Psychological distress intensified the mediating role of stress reduction and boredom avoidance, suggesting that pornography may serve as an emotionally avoidant coping strategy, particularly under high levels of distress, an interpretation aligned with the affect-regulation models commonly applied to compulsive pornography use and other maladaptive coping behaviors (Gola et al., 2016).

Furthermore, impulsivity amplified the effects of various pornography use motivations (e.g., sexual curiosity), indicating that impaired self-regulation may facilitate the progression from recreational use to PPU (Antons & Brand, 2018; Brand et al., 2019). Loneliness also moderated the effects of motivations related to emotional distraction and suppression, consistent with evidence that loneliness mediates the link between emotion regulation difficulties and PPU (Cardoso et al., 2023). In addition, lower levels of sexual dysfunction strengthened the indirect effect of fantasy and self-exploration motivations, suggesting that in the context of limited sexual intimacy, pornography use may function as a simulated form of relational or sexual fulfillment (Vasquez et al., 2025; Bőthe et al., 2021). Notably, the indirect effect of lack of sexual satisfaction at high levels of psychological distress was the only pathway that exceeded Ferguson's (2009) threshold for practical significance (β = −0.22 and − 0.21), suggesting that clinically distressed individuals who are dissatisfied with their sex life may be particularly vulnerable to PPU.

Overall, the findings are consistent with a conditional pathway model in which basic psychological needs, frustration, and pornography use motivations interact with individual vulnerabilities to predict PPU. These results reinforce the relevance of incorporating SDT into contemporary models of compulsive sexual behaviors, particularly PPU, and highlight the importance of person–environment factors and emotion- regulation capacities (Brand et al., 2019).

4.4. Theoretical, clinical, and applied implications

The findings of the present study provide exploratory evidence consistent with SDT, suggesting that frustration of psychological needs may predict problematic behaviors not only through direct pathways but also through specific motivations that operate under contextual moderators. The proposed conditional model highlights the limitations of unidimensional perspectives on PPU and underscores the importance of considering more nuanced mechanisms by which need regulation interacts with individual vulnerabilities. Moreover, by conceptualizing pornography use motivations along the intrinsic–extrinsic continuum and examining their potentially maladaptive trajectories, the present findings offer preliminary support for a more refined motivational taxonomy within the study of digital sexual behaviors.

The results also have important practical implications for the prevention and treatment of PPU. Interventions may benefit from focusing on restoring psychological need satisfaction, particularly in the domains of relational intimacy and sexual competence. Although most motivational indirect effects in this study fell below practical significance thresholds, treatment effectiveness may still be improved by attending to underlying motivations, particularly those related to emotional escape, stress regulation, and boredom avoidance, especially in individuals who also present with elevated psychological distress or sexual dissatisfaction, where motivational pathways showed the strongest conditional effects. Additionally, clinicians may find value in autonomy- supportive therapeutic approaches, such as Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT) or Dialectical Behavior Therapy (DBT), particularly for individuals exhibiting elevated impulsivity. Such approaches may help strengthen self-regulation capacities and enhance emotional awareness, thereby supporting more adaptive coping strategies.

From a clinical perspective, the most robust finding is that lack of sexual satisfaction combined with high psychological distress showed the strongest indirect effect on PPU. Therefore, clinicians assessing individuals for PPU should routinely evaluate both sexual dissatisfaction and current distress levels. Interventions that address sexual function (e.g., sensate focus, communication skills) alongside distress tolerance (e.g., DBT skills) may be more effective than focusing solely on pornography reduction.

4.5. Limitations and future directions

The findings of the present study should be interpreted in light of several limitations. First, the cross-sectional design restricts the ability to draw causal inferences. Although the proposed conditional process model was grounded in established theoretical frameworks, longitudinal and experimental research is needed to clarify temporal ordering and test causal directionality. Second, although several indirect effects were statistically detectable (as discussed above), most fell below conventional thresholds for practical significance (|β| < 0.20; Ferguson, 2009), limiting their potential clinical or theoretical importance. This pattern aligns with recent findings in the behavioral addiction literature, in which motivational factors accounted for only a modest proportion of the variance in internet gaming disorder severity (1.4%), whereas cognitive and metacognitive processes were substantially more influential (Akbari et al., 2023; Akbari et al., 2024). Third, the reliance on self-report measures may introduce social desirability and reporting biases, particularly given the cultural sensitivity surrounding pornography use and religiosity. Future studies may benefit from incorporating behavioral, ecological momentary, or implicit measures to obtain a more comprehensive understanding of the processes underlying PPU. Additionally, although the study included a large sample, the predominance of male participants limited our ability to meaningfully examine gender-specific patterns of PPU. Given the exploratory nature of the study and the large number of statistical tests conducted, some significant findings may reflect Type I errors; therefore, all results should be interpreted as hypothesis-generating and should be replicated independently before firm conclusions can be drawn.

It is also important to acknowledge that pornography-use motivations are rarely singular; individuals often endorse multiple motives simultaneously. Thus, future work may benefit from employing person-centered approaches (e.g., latent profile analysis or latent class analysis) to identify co-occurring motivational profiles that may confer differential risk for PPU. Finally, future research should investigate protective factors, such as mindfulness, sexual communication, or value congruence, that may moderate the impact of pornography-use motivations and help identify pathways that buffer against the progression from need frustration to dysregulated pornography use.

5. Conclusion

The present study provided exploratory evidence consistent with a conditional process model in which deficits in psychological need satisfaction may contribute to PPU through distinct motivational pathways moderated by individual differences in psychological vulnerability. These findings are consistent with the applicability of SDT to the study of PPU and related compulsive sexual behaviors, rather than framing such behaviors within a behavioral addiction framework. Importantly, the results underscore the value of examining not only why individuals engage in pornography use, but also the conditions under which such behavior may become dysregulated or problematic. Recognizing the dynamic interplay among need frustration, specific motivations, and vulnerability traits is essential for developing rigorous, theory-driven interventions. Moreover, these insights may inform the refinement of conceptual models of digital sexual behavior in both clinical and research contexts, thereby promoting more nuanced, mechanism-focused approaches to understanding PPU.

CRediT authorship contribution statement

Mehdi Akbari: Conceptualization, Methodology, Formal analysis, Validation, Supervision, Project administration, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. Mohammad Seydavi: Conceptualization, Methodology, Formal analysis, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. Sonay Sheikhi: Conceptualization, Data curation, Investigation, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing.

Declaration of competing interest

Given their roles as Editorial Board members, Mehdi Akbari and Mohammad Seydavi had no involvement in the peer-review of this article and had no access to information regarding its peer-review. Sonay Sheikhi declares no conflicts of interest.

Data availability

The data are available from the first author upon reasonable request.