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. 2026 Jul 14;61(4):e70237. doi: 10.1002/ijop.70237

Relationship Between Naturalistic Psychedelic Use and Grandiose Narcissism: An Online Cross‐Sectional Study

Anastasia Ruban 1,2,✉, Paweł Orłowski 3,4, Michał Bola 3, Magdalena Żemojtel‐Piotrowska 1
PMCID: PMC13366009  PMID: 42444281

ABSTRACT

The present study examined the relationship between naturalistic psychedelic use and two distinct forms of grandiose narcissism: admiration and rivalry. Using data from an online survey, we compared psychedelic users (N = 630), non‐users (N = 100) and individuals planning to use psychedelics in the future (N = 141) on levels of admiration and rivalry. Additionally, we explored how these two forms of narcissism related to the intensity of past ego dissolution and mystical experiences. Psychedelic users reported higher admiration and lower rivalry than non‐users who did not intend to use psychedelics. No significant differences emerged between users and those intending to use psychedelics. Among users, ego dissolution experiences were associated with lower rivalry, while mystical experiences were linked to higher admiration. Notably, effect sizes in all analyses were small, warranting caution when interpreting the relevance of the reported effects. By highlighting these opposing patterns in admiration and rivalry, our findings contribute to the understanding of how specific personality traits relate to psychedelic use. Future longitudinal and experimental studies are needed to clarify the direction of these relationships and to investigate contextual and individual factors shaping psychedelic experiences and their psychological outcomes.

Keywords: admiration, ego dissolution, mystical experience, narcissism, psychedelics, rivalry

1. Introduction

Over the past few decades, the number of studies suggesting the positive effects of psychedelics has rapidly increased. Specifically, psychedelics—in clinical and experimental settings—reduced levels of depression, anxiety and substance abuse (Aday et al. 2020; Van Elk and Yaden 2022). Further, naturalistic psychedelic users reported higher levels of well‐being, life satisfaction, self‐acceptance and lower levels of depression, rumination and negative emotional reactivity than non‐users (Orłowski et al. 2022; Raison et al. 2022). Importantly, the effects on mental health and well‐being are likely related to the intensity of acute psychedelic effects, particularly ego dissolution and mystical experiences, which are thus perceived as essentially beneficial phenomena (Gearin and Devenot 2021). Ego dissolution and mystical experience are somewhat overlapping, but complementary concepts. The former is characterised by a subjective blurring of boundaries between the self and external reality, autobiographical memory loss or a profound sense of connectedness with a larger whole or the universe (Nour et al. 2016). The latter is marked by feelings of ineffability and sacredness and it is accompanied by a sense of merging with a greater whole (Nour et al. 2016). However, such strong distortions in self‐perception and reality can also potentially lead to detrimental effects on the mental health and well‐being of certain users (Evans 2023; Simonsson et al. 2023).

One potential aspect of the self that may be influenced by psychedelics is narcissism. Narcissism is characterised by two defining features: a sense of exceptionalism and social selfishness (Sedikides 2021). At first glance, the increased sense of connectedness and weakened self–world boundaries often associated with psychedelic experiences appear to contrast with narcissism. Indeed, a recent high‐powered cross‐sectional study (Van Mulukom et al. 2020) found that among people who had taken psychedelics in the past 5 years, greater awe and connectedness during those experiences predicted lower exploitativeness‐entitlement—a key maladaptive facet of narcissism (Ackerman et al. 2011). However, a longitudinal study by Weiss et al. (2023) found no conclusive evidence that ayahuasca use reduces exploitativeness‐entitlement. Instead, they observed a small but significant decrease in the exploitative‐entitled facet (NPI‐EE) of the Narcissistic Personality Inventory (NPI); however, no reduction in entitlement was found when measured by a dedicated scale. Moreover, the authors reported increases in the Leadership/Authority dimension of narcissism (NPI‐LA), which represents a dominative aspect of grandiose narcissism. Therefore, the results seem inconclusive, showing differences between self‐enhancing and antagonistic aspects of narcissism.

Moreover, some spiritual practices have been shown to foster self‐enhancement in the form of spiritual superiority (Vonk and Visser 2021). Self‐enhancement is the tendency to see oneself as better, more special or more virtuous than others, being a central motive of grandiose narcissism (Alicke and Sedikides 2009). Certain practices, such as some forms of energy training or spiritual workshops, can lead individuals to interpret their experiences as evidence that they are uniquely gifted, awakened or chosen. As a result, people may base their self‐worth on being more spiritually advanced than others, linking spirituality to narcissistic traits such as feelings of superiority, entitlement to guide others and contempt for those perceived as less developed. This is particularly relevant given that psychedelics are often used as tools for spiritual exploration and might provide exceptional experiences.

In line with this, Jules Evans (2023) and Nese Devenot (2023) analysed claims by prominent psychedelic figures, revealing patterns of exceptionalism and superiority towards others. While prominent figures may exhibit such traits independently of psychedelics, the aforementioned research (Devenot 2023; Evans 2023) suggests that psychedelic use might not always reduce this tendency in some individuals. Additionally, numerous informal guides in psychedelic communities address narcissism, either as a potential psychedelic side effect or as a warning about narcissistic facilitators (e.g., see: Watts 2024; Tripsitter 2023; Bay Area CBT Center 2024; Psychedelic Medicine Podcast 2024). Thus, although the topic is not well‐explored, it is noticeable and relevant for the community members.

Summing up, there is a possibility that psychedelic experiences can be associated with narcissism. The possible mechanisms can include potentially ego‐boosting effects of psychedelics, such as exceptional experiences interpreted as personal superiority (e.g., ‘mystical experiences’ leading to spiritual elitism) or cultural frames like evolutionary spirituality that frame users as ‘more evolved’ (Evans 2023).

Relationships between psychedelics and narcissism may be bidirectional. Psychedelic experiences could either amplify or attenuate narcissistic tendencies, while individuals with higher trait narcissism may be more inclined to seek intense or transformative experiences, such as those found in spiritual practices or the use of psychoactive substances. This association aligns with research linking narcissism to risk‐taking behaviour and substance use through two neural systems: the Behavioural Activation System (BAS) and the Behavioural Inhibition System (BIS; Mowlaie et al. 2016). Greater BAS activity, in particular, has been associated with increased substance use, partly via elevated narcissistic traits (MacLaren and Best 2013; Mowlaie et al. 2016).

Much of the existing literature on narcissism and substance use has focused on pathological narcissism (Mowlaie et al. 2016) or on the Dark Triad (Stenason and Vernon 2016), a cluster of socially aversive traits including narcissism, psychopathy and Machiavellianism. These traits share a common core of antagonism, characterised by hostility, manipulativeness, callousness, grandiosity and lack of empathy (Vize et al. 2019). This body of work has not always differentiated between distinct forms of grandiose narcissism. Recent research suggests that separating admiration (agentic self‐promotion) from rivalry (antagonistic self‐protection) provides a more nuanced understanding of NPI‐based narcissism (Weiss et al. 2023). This distinction is particularly relevant because admiration and rivalry show different associations with antagonism and with underlying neural systems (Back et al. 2013; Subramanian et al. 2022). Admiration, an ego‐enhancing dimension, is positively associated with BAS activity (Subramanian et al. 2022) and relates to higher self‐confidence, greater subjective well‐being and lower neuroticism (Back et al. 2013; Dufner et al. 2019). In contrast, rivalry, an ego‐defensive dimension, is positively associated with BIS activity (Subramanian et al. 2022) and is linked to higher antagonism, lower subjective well‐being and reduced self‐esteem (Back et al. 2013). Consequently, admiration and rivalry may be differentially related to psychedelic use, ego dissolution and mystical experiences.

1.1. The Current Study

The present study examined the relationships between two aspects of grandiose narcissism (admiration and rivalry), psychedelic use and its subjective effects, specifically ego dissolution and mystical experience. To capture these effects, we employed two measures: the Ego Dissolution Inventory (EDI; Nour et al. 2016) and Hood's Mysticism Scale (HMS; Hood 1975). Importantly, while EDI and HMD address the attenuation of self‐boundaries, they operationalise distinct psychological constructs. The EDI targets the structural disintegration of self‐referential processing, quantifying the magnitude of self‐loss independent of its emotional valence. In contrast, the HMS assesses the phenomenological content of the experience, prioritising positive affect, reverence and the spiritual interpretation of unity. Furthermore, distinct temporal frames were applied to these measures: the HMS focused on the participant's single most significant experience (peak intensity), whereas the EDI assessed the cumulative or typical tendency towards ego dissolution across past psychedelic uses.

We collected data from three groups: individuals who use psychedelics, those who plan to use them in the future and those who have never used them. We compared these groups in terms of the two forms of grandiose narcissism: admiration and rivalry. As previous findings have been inconsistent, we did not formulate prior hypotheses and instead conducted exploratory research.

2. Method

2.1. Data Collection and Participants

The present study is part of a larger project investigating the relationship between naturalistic psychedelic use, self‐consciousness and emotionality (Orłowski et al. 2022, 2024b, 2024a; Ruban et al. 2025; Adamczyk et al. 2025). Data were collected via an online survey divided into two parts: a main section and an additional section. This design was intended to optimise participants' time commitment and reduce dropout rates. In the present study, we used data from both the main and additional sections.

The study was advertised online using an announcement inviting individuals to participate in a study on the relationship between psychedelic substance use and brain functioning. Recruitment materials described the study as involving the completion of an online survey and psychological questionnaires. The announcement explicitly invited both individuals who had used psychedelic substances and those without such experience. Participants were also informed that selected individuals might be contacted for subsequent stages of the project involving neuroimaging, for which financial compensation was offered. The advertisement encouraged recipients to share the information with potentially interested individuals.

An online survey was created using the open‐source LimeSurvey software (version 3.22.7). The survey was distributed online via the social media profiles of Polish research institutions and associations committed to education concerning the use of psychoactive substances and harm reduction (politykanarkotykowa.pl.; sin.org.pl; psychodeliki.org). The survey and all questionnaires were in Polish and only Polish‐speaking participants were recruited. Each person read and electronically signed an informed consent form and a General Data Protection Regulation clause before proceeding to the survey. The survey was anonymous, but participants willing to participate in our future studies were asked to provide their email addresses. Completing the main section took approximately 30 min, while completing the additional section took approximately 20 min. The survey was divided into the following subsections, which were always presented in the same order.

A total of 3273 participants completed the main section of the survey. The additional section included several supplementary questionnaires and was sent only to participants who had expressed willingness to devote more time to the study. We acknowledge that this two‐stage procedure may have introduced a degree of selection bias, as participants who chose to complete the longer assessment might possess specific motivational or personality traits that differ from the broader sample. Relevant to the current analysis, the main section collected data on demographics, lifetime psychedelic use, intent to use psychedelics in the future, the intensity of mystical experience (measured with the Hood Mysticism Scale [HMS]) and ego dissolution (measured with the Ego Dissolution Inventory [EDI]). The additional section included the Narcissistic Admiration and Rivalry Questionnaire (NARQ). These questionnaires are described in detail below.

Of participants who finished the first part, 919 individuals initiated an additional, voluntary section of the survey. To ensure data quality, we implemented two attention check questions embedded within the questionnaires of the main section of the survey, which required participants to select a specific response (e.g., if you are reading this, please select response ‘not at all’). Among the individuals who started the additional section, 84 were excluded for failing these attention checks. After further excluding those who did not complete all items in the additional section, the final sample consisted of 871 individuals. Of these, 100 had never used psychedelics and did not intend to; 141 had never used psychedelics but expressed an intent to do so in the future; and 630 reported prior use of psychedelics. We refer to these groups as non‐users, potential users and users, respectively.

Most participants in each group resided in cities with populations over 500,000, assessed their material situation as good and held a master's degree. The majority of participants in the user group were male, whereas the majority of participants in the non‐user groups were female. Participants across all groups were, on average, in their mid‐20s. Detailed demographic information is presented in Table S1.

The research was approved by the Human Ethics Committee of the SWPS University (Warsaw, Poland; 13/2020).

2.2. Measures

2.2.1. Narcissistic Admiration and Rivalry Questionnaire

The Narcissistic Admiration and Rivalry Questions reflect self‐promotional (admiration) and self‐defensive (rivalry) tendencies.

2.2.2. Ego Dissolution Inventory

The Ego Dissolution Inventory (EDI; Nour et al. 2016) is an 8‐item self‐report scale designed to assess the subjective experience of ego dissolution. In the present study, we used a translated version of the EDI to measure participants' recalled intensity of all past ego dissolution experiences induced by psychedelics.

2.2.3. Hood Mysticism Scale

The Hood Mysticism Scale (HMS; Anthony et al. 2010) assesses characteristics of mystical experiences, such as feelings of unity, bliss and ego dissolution. We employed a Polish adaptation of the abridged 12‐item version (Radoń 2014). Participants were instructed to reflect on one of their most significant psychedelic experiences when completing the HMS.

2.3. Analytical Strategy

All analyses were conducted using the statistical software Jamovi (The jamovi project 2024). Data are available at the Open Science Framework: https://osf.io/82wjv.

We conducted chi‐square tests to test for group distribution in gender, education, material situation and place of living.

We used one‐way analysis of variance (ANOVA) to compare the three groups, users, potential users and non‐users, on key study variables. Specifically, we used Welch ANOVA to account for inequality in group sizes and variances (Kohr and Games 1974). To explore group differences further, we employed Games–Howell post hoc tests.

We conducted linear regression analyses to examine the relationships between ego dissolution, mysticism, lifetime psychedelic use and the two forms of narcissism (admiration and rivalry).

3. Results

3.1. Group Distribution

Chi‐square tests revealed group differences in gender (χ 2(4) = 49, p < 0.001, V = 0.17), place of residence (χ 2(8) = 15.93, p = 0.043, V = 0.1), material situation (χ 2(8) = 17.83, p = 0.023, V = 0.1) and education (χ 2(10) = 22.22, p = 0.014, V = 0.11). Notably, all Cramer's V effect sizes were small (0.1–0.2). Given the chi‐square test's sensitivity to large sample sizes (Bergh 2015) and the small effect sizes observed, these distributional differences lack practical significance and may have limited impact on the primary results.

3.2. Comparison of Users and Non‐Users in Terms of Narcissism

Below we describe results of one‐way Welch's ANOVA used for comparison between groups in terms of rivalry and admiration. For the detailed statistics please see Tables 1 and 2, for the visualisation of results see Figure 1.

TABLE 1.

One‐way ANOVA (Welch's): Between‐group differences in admiration and rivalry among users, potential users and non‐users.

Variable F df1 df2 p ω 2 Current users M (SD) Potential users M (SD) Non‐users M (SD)
Admiration 5.23 2 205 0.006** 0.009 3.42 (0.84) 3.36 (0.85) 3.14 (0.83)
Rivalry 3.89 2 206 0.022* 0.007 2.44 (0.83) 2.49 (0.79) 2.69 (0.83)
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Note: Significant comparisons are marked with an asterisk: *p < 0.05. **p < 0.01. Non‐users, individuals who did not use psychedelics and do not plan to do so in the future; Potential users, individuals who did not use psychedelics but plan to do so in the future; Users, individuals who used psychedelics. ω 2 , omega2.

TABLE 2.

Games‐Howell post hoc test for one‐way ANOVA presented in Table 1.

Group Non‐users Users
Admiration
Potential users Mean difference 0.22 −0.07
p 0.113 0.668
Non‐users Mean difference — −0.29
p — 0.007**
Rivalry
Potential users Mean difference −0.19 0.06
p 0.164 0.739
Non‐users Mean difference — 0.25
p — 0.017*
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Note: Significant comparisons are marked with an asterisk: *p < 0.05. **p < 0.01. Non‐users, individuals who did not use psychedelics and do not plan to do so in the future; Potential users, individuals who did not use psychedelic but plan to do so in the future.

FIGURE 1.

FIGURE 1

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Differences between groups in admiration and rivalry levels. Significant comparisons are marked with an asterisk: *p < 0.05. Non‐users—individuals who did not use psychedelics and do not plan to do so in the future; Potential users—individuals who did not use psychedelics but plan to do so in the future; Users—individuals who used psychedelics.

3.2.1. Narcissistic Admiration

The levels of admiration also differed between the groups (F(2, 205) = 5.23, p = 0.006, ω 2  = 0.009). Post hoc Games‐Howell tests showed a significant difference between the non‐users (M = 3.14, SD = 0.83) and users groups (M = 3.42, SD = 0.84; p = 0.005), but neither comparison involving the potential users group (M = 3.36, SD = 0.85) was significant.

3.2.2. Narcissistic Rivalry

The levels of narcissistic rivalry differed between the investigated groups (F(2, 206) = 3.89, p = 0.022, ω 2  = 0.007). Post hoc comparisons indicate that the users group (M = 2.44, SD  = 0.83) had lower rivalry than the non‐users group (M = 2.69, SD = 0.832; p = 0.017), but neither comparison involving the potential users group (M = 2.49, SD = 0.79) was significant.

3.3. Associations Between Narcissism, Ego Dissolution and Mystical Experience

To examine whether ego dissolution, mysticism and lifetime psychedelic use predicted levels of admiration and rivalry, we used linear regression analysis. Additionally, we included potentially confounding factors such as gender and age. Detailed statistics are provided in Table 3. Visualisation of the relationship between admiration and mysticism and rivalry and ego dissolution is provided in Figure 2.

TABLE 3.

Regression analysis for prediction of admiration and rivalry based on EDI, HMS and lifetime psychedelic use.

Effect B SE 95% CI t p
LL UL
Admiration
Intercepta 3.059 0.18 2.71 3.41 16.98 < 0.001**
Ego dissolution 1.18e−4 2.08e−4 −2.90e−4 5.27e−4 0.57 0.57
Mysticism 0.016 0.006 0.005 0.03 2.82 0.005**
Psychedelics lifetime use 2.36e−4 0.001 −0.002 0.002 0.23 0.822
Age −0.005 0.005 −0.02 0.005 −0.96 0.339
Gender
Female–male 0.08 0.07 −0.05 0.22 1.2 0.229
Other–male 0.39 0.38 −0.34 1.13 1.05 0.295
Model fit R 0.17 R 2 0.03
Rivalry
Intercept 3.43 0.17547 3.08 3.77 19.54 < 0.001**
Ego dissolution −5.25e−4 2.03e−4 −9.23e−4 −1.27e−4 −2.59 0.01*
Mysticism −0.009 0.006 −0.02 0.002 −1.57 0.117
Psychedelics lifetime use 7.32e−4 0.001 −0.001 0.003 0.72 0.475
Age −0.02 0.005 −0.03 −0.01 −3.55 < 0.001**
Gender
Female–male −0.12 0.07 −0.25 0.02 −1.72 0.086
Other–male −0.68 0.37 −1.39 0.04 −1.86 0.063
Model fit R 0.25 R 2 0.06
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Abbreviations: CI, confidence interval; LL, lower limit; UL, upper limit.

*

p < 0.05.

**

p < 0.01.

FIGURE 2.

FIGURE 2

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Relationship between admiration and mysticism and rivalry and ego dissolution.

The model predicting admiration was statistically significant, F(4, 625) = 4.38, p = 0.002, but explained a small proportion of variance (R 2  = 0.03). As shown in Table 3, mysticism emerged as a significant positive predictor of admiration (B = 0.016, SE = 0.006, t = 2.82, p = 0.005). In contrast, neither ego dissolution (B = 1.18 × 10−4, p = 0.57) nor lifetime psychedelic use (B = 2.36 × 10−4, p = 0.822) were significant predictors. Age and gender were also not significantly associated with admiration.

The model predicting rivalry was likewise statistically significant, F(4, 625) = 6.57, p < 0.001, explaining slightly more variance (R 2  = 0.06). Ego dissolution was a significant negative predictor of rivalry (p = 0.010). Mysticism (p = 0.117) and lifetime psychedelic use (p = 0.475) were not significantly related to rivalry. Age was a significant negative predictor (p < 0.001), indicating lower rivalry scores with increasing age. Gender effects were not statistically significant.

Overall, the results indicate that mysticism is specifically associated with higher admiration, whereas ego dissolution is associated with lower rivalry. Lifetime psychedelic use was not significantly related to either dimension.

4. Discussion

This study examined the associations between naturalistic psychedelic use and grandiose narcissism, operationalised through admiration and rivalry. Psychedelic users reported significantly lower levels of rivalry and higher levels of admiration compared to non‐users. However, there were no significant differences between psychedelic users and potential users (i.e., individuals who plan to use psychedelics in the future). Furthermore, among users, mystical experiences were associated with higher admiration, while ego dissolution was linked to lower rivalry.

4.1. Admiration, Psychedelic Use and Mystical Experience

There are two primary interpretations of the association between admiration and psychedelic use. One possibility is that individuals high in admiration may be more inclined to use psychedelics. Psychedelic experiences are often perceived as transformative, intense and personally meaningful—qualities that may appeal to individuals with elevated narcissistic traits. This aligns with previous research suggesting that narcissistic individuals may engage with psychoactive substances to enhance their sense of uniqueness or superiority (Salazar et al. 2021). While most existing studies focus on substance misuse, this may not fully apply to psychedelics due to their low addiction potential (Kim and Suzuki 2023). Moreover, admiration has been linked to greater risk‐taking (Foster et al. 2009) and engaging with psychedelics could be construed as a bold or unconventional behaviour that reinforces one's sense of exceptionality.

Second, it is also possible that higher admiration observed in our study in the users group can be a result of psychedelic use. It was previously shown that spiritual practices might be used as a strategy of self‐enhancement and might be associated with spiritual superiority (Vonk and Visser 2021). In this context, mystical experiences induced by psychedelics might similarly be used to boost one's self‐image, potentially contributing to increasing admiration over time. This interpretation is supported by our observation that higher levels of mystical experience were associated with higher levels of admiration. This link may reflect the specific psychological function of admiration, which focuses on agentic self‐enhancement through the BAS (Subramanian et al. 2022). Such a motive may be particularly fueled by singular, highly salient ‘peak experiences’ of sacredness or exceptionality, as measured by the HMS in our study. These profound phenomenological states can be easily assimilated into a narrative of personal uniqueness or spiritual chosenness—a process described as ‘spiritual bypassing’ (Masters 2010). In this sense, a single mystical peak could tentatively serve as a ‘spiritual trophy’ for the agentic ego, potentially reinforcing the individual's tendency to see themselves as more spiritually advanced than others (Vonk and Visser 2021).

Alternatively, individuals with higher levels of admiration might be more prone to experiencing ecstatic states during psychedelic sessions, which are closely related to mystical experiences. This may be due to the positive association between admiration and the BAS (Subramanian et al. 2022). Individuals high in admiration may interpret such experiences in ways that affirm their sense of uniqueness—for example, the more mystical the experience, the more it serves as confirmation of their exceptionality.

4.2. Rivalry, Psychedelic Use and Ego Dissolution

The observed association between lower rivalry and psychedelic use can also be interpreted in two ways. One explanation is that individuals high in rivalry may be less likely to use psychedelics. Higher rivalry has been linked to elevated neuroticism (Back et al. 2013), which may discourage engagement with psychedelics due to the potential for anxiety or loss of control. Additionally, since psychedelics are often used in communal or interpersonal contexts, such as festivals, ceremonies or group settings (Adamczyk et al. 2025), individuals with high rivalry, who tend to avoid close social interactions and exhibit interpersonal antagonism, may be less drawn to such settings (Back et al. 2013).

Alternatively, psychedelic experiences may reduce rivalry. Prior research has linked rivalry to reduced empathy, lower self‐esteem and poor interpersonal functioning (Back et al. 2013; Rogoza et al. 2018), all of which have been shown to improve following psychedelic experiences (Amada et al. 2020). This aligns with findings by Van Mulukom et al. (2020), who reported higher levels of affective empathy and connectedness and lower levels of exploitative‐entitled narcissism among recent psychedelic users. Further, this is in line with the findings of Weiss et al. (2023) that ayahuasca ceremony was followed by (albeit small) reductions in exploitativeness‐entitlement narcissism. Psychedelics may thus reduce rivalry by fostering a sense of interpersonal closeness and diminishing ego‐defensive tendencies.

Notably, in our study, ego dissolution, but not mystical experience, predicted lower levels of rivalry. This diverges from Van Mulukom et al. (2020), who found no relationship between ego dissolution and reductions in narcissism. This discrepancy may reflect methodological differences. In our study, ego dissolution was measured as a cumulative experience across all psychedelic sessions, whereas van Mulukom et al. focused on a single recent experience. This broader temporal perspective may better capture the gradual effects of ego dissolution on rivalry, a chronic defensive system linked to the BIS (Subramanian et al. 2022). Deeply ingrained defensive patterns often require repeated, cumulative experiences to undergo significant shifts (Roberts et al. 2017; Wrzus and Roberts 2017). We tentatively propose that while singular peaks may fuel admiration, the attenuation of rivalry depends more on a cumulative history of boundary dissolution. Repeatedly ‘loosening’ the ego structure may gradually erode rigid interpersonal barriers, whereas a single instance of ego loss might initially be perceived as a threat to control.

Further, individuals high in rivalry may have more difficulty experiencing ego dissolution. Elevated neuroticism and self‐defensiveness may make it harder for such individuals to surrender control and ‘let go’ of the ego during psychedelic states (Back et al. 2013). In addition, they may take smaller doses due to anxiety, which could limit the occurrence or depth of ego dissolution. Conversely, when ego dissolution does occur, it may challenge core aspects of rivalry, such as the need to assert dominance or protect self‐worth, by fostering a more interconnected, fluid and less self‐centred perspective.

4.3. Differences Between Admiration and Rivalry Among Non‐Users, Potential Users and Users

Our findings are only partially consistent with previous research, highlighting the complexity of the relationship between psychedelic use and grandiose narcissism. We distinguished different patterns of relationship between psychedelic use and narcissism depending on the form of narcissism (admiration vs. rivalry). This difference might be explained by distinct relationships between admiration, rivalry and behavioural systems: admiration is positively related to BAS, while rivalry is related to BIS (Subramanian et al. 2022). Therefore, our study contributes to other research indicating different psychological and behavioural manifestations of grandiose narcissism. Further, we found no significant differences between psychedelic users and individuals who plan to use psychedelics in the future. This highlights the importance of distinguishing between non‐users who plan and do not plan to use psychedelics in future research, especially when selecting a control group for psychedelic users. Below we discuss the limitations and strengths of the present study.

4.4. Limitations, Strengths and Further Directions

Notably, observed effect sizes between‐group differences and regression analysis were weak, meaning that all findings should be interpreted with caution. It is plausible that, if present, actual differences in rivalry and admiration for narcissism between current users and non‐users might be too small to be meaningful. However, replication of reported findings is needed to establish consistency of the reported effects.

Cross‐sectional studies on psychedelics allow researchers to include larger and more diverse samples of users than clinical or experimental research and potentially make the research more ecologically valid. At the same time, cross‐sectional research is not free from serious limitations, which constrain the strength and scope of its conclusions. Common limitations include a potentially biased and unrepresentative sample, unknown patterns (i.e., dosage, context) of psychedelic use, lack of control for personality traits and inability to draw cause‐effect relationships (see Orłowski et al. 2022; Ruban et al. 2025 for a discussion). These limitations could be partially addressed by complementing cross‐sectional studies with experimental or longitudinal designs that allow for better control over dosage, setting and participant characteristics (e.g., personality traits, prior expectations), thereby helping to disentangle the causal influence of contextual and personal factors on psychedelic experiences and their outcomes.

Cross‐sectional studies typically compare groups of psychedelic users with an appropriately matched group of non‐users. An important novel aspect of our work is that a third group was included in the study's design—a group of non‐users who plan to use psychedelics in the future. Implementing this strategy allowed us to control for, at least to some extent, personal factors that incline one to be willing to use psychedelics in the first place. These factors are not well‐studied and might include lifestyle, personality traits or socio‐economic status. However, the operationalisation of this ‘potential users’ group represents a limitation. The broad phrasing of the question assessing future psychedelic use (‘Do you plan to use psychedelics in the future?’) may have captured individuals who are generally open to the idea of use rather than those with a concrete or imminent intention to do so. As a result, this group may reflect permissive attitudes towards psychedelics more than firm future behavioural plans, potentially diluting differences between groups. Future research would benefit from more precise operationalisation, such as assessing timeframe, likelihood or prior steps taken towards use.

An additional limitation relates to the recruitment procedure and framing of the study. Because the study was advertised as investigating the relationship between psychedelic substance use and brain functioning, it may have preferentially attracted individuals with an interest in psychedelics. As a result, even participants in the non‐psychedelic group may not be representative of the general population but rather of individuals sufficiently interested in the topic to participate in such research. This recruitment strategy may therefore introduce self‐selection bias and should be considered when interpreting comparisons between psychedelic users and non‐users.

Moving to narcissism measurements: we focused on different aspects of grandiose narcissism (admiration and rivalry), which allowed us to assess differences in relationships between different forms of narcissism and psychedelic use and experiences. This shows the value of distinguishing different forms of narcissism in the context of studies on psychedelics, spiritual practices and substance use. At the same time, we cannot infer whether observed effects relate solely to narcissism or to self‐esteem and well‐being, since admiration is related to higher self‐esteem and well‐being (Dufner et al. 2019). Therefore, observed relationships might as well be explained by increases in self‐esteem and well‐being associated with psychedelic use. In future studies, including self‐esteem and well‐being as control variables would help identify the unique effects of narcissism without the confounding influence of well‐being and self‐esteem. Further, future studies should examine vulnerable narcissism, given its link to neuroticism (like rivalry) and communal narcissism, which strongly correlates with spiritual superiority in spiritual contexts where users claim moral or enlightened guidance over others (Vonk and Visser 2021). These facets are theoretically relevant to psychedelics' spiritual framing yet remain unstudied.

Finally, it is also worth considering the impact of differences in the instructions for reporting mysticism and ego dissolution on the obtained results. Mysticism measurement referred to a single, selected, intense psychedelic experience, whereas ego dissolution encompassed all past psychedelic experiences. We observed that admiration was associated with mysticism but not with ego dissolution, while rivalry showed the opposite pattern. Since both measures are strongly correlated and reflect the intensity of psychedelic experiences, this discrepancy may stem from the fact that ego dissolution captures the cumulative sum of experiences, whereas mysticism focuses on a single, particularly salient one. However, this suggestion requires further inquiry. Additionally, the retrospective nature of these measures introduces the possibility of recall bias, particularly within the psychedelic users group. Participants were required to reflect on past subjective experiences, which may be influenced by memory distortion, current attitudes or the passage of time. Such bias may affect the accuracy or consistency of reported experiences and should be considered when interpreting the findings.

5. Conclusion

Psychedelic users exhibit significantly higher levels of admiration and significantly lower levels of rivalry compared to non‐users. However, no differences in narcissism levels were observed between psychedelic users and non‐users who plan to use psychedelics in the future. Among psychedelic users, mystical experiences were associated with higher levels of admiration, while ego dissolution experiences were linked to lower levels of rivalry. Given the cross‐sectional design, we cannot infer the direction of the relationship between narcissism and psychedelic use. On the one hand, it is possible that higher admiration and lower rivalry may predict an individual's willingness to use psychedelics. Our results would be consistent with this interpretation, since we did not observe significant differences between individuals who plan to use psychedelics and those who use psychedelics. On the other hand, it is also plausible that psychedelic experiences might increase admiration and decrease rivalry. Importantly, both effects can overlap: individuals with higher admiration might be more prone to use psychedelics and psychedelics might increase levels of admiration, while the inverse relationship may be present for rivalry. Further experimental or longitudinal studies would be beneficial to explore the direction of this relationship. Additionally, examining the role of the context of psychedelic experiences, personal history and life circumstances could further shed light on the relationship between narcissism and psychedelic use.

Author Contributions

Anastasia Ruban: conceptualization, methodology, data curation, investigation, formal analysis, funding acquisition, project administration, writing – original draft, writing – review and editing. Magdalena Żemojtel‐Piotrowska: conceptualization, methodology, supervision, writing – review and editing. Michał Bola: writing – review and editing, conceptualization, supervision, funding acquisition, project administration, methodology, visualization. Paweł Orłowski: conceptualization, methodology, data curation, investigation, writing – review and editing.

Funding

This study was funded by the National Science Center Poland PRELUDIUM (2020/37/N/HS6/02086) and PRELUDIUM BIS (2020/39/O/HS6/01545) grants. Work of Magdalena Żemojtel‐Piotrowska was financed by NCN grant SONATA BIS (2017/26/E/HS6/00282). Centre for Brain Research is supported as a flagship project by Future Society Priority Research Area and Quality of Life Priority Research Area under the Strategic Program of Excellence Initiative at the Jagiellonian University in Krakow.

Ethics Statement

All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional research committee at University SWPS (Warsaw, Poland, 13/2020) and with the 1964 Helsinki Declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.

Consent

Informed consent was obtained from all individual adult participants included in the study.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Supporting information

Table S1: Demographic information with division into groups.

IJOP-61-e70237-s001.docx (144.3KB, docx)

Acknowledgements

ChatGPT‐4, a generative language model developed by OpenAI, was used to assist with language corrections, including spelling and grammar.

Ruban, A. , Orłowski P., Bola M., and Żemojtel‐Piotrowska M.. 2026. “Relationship Between Naturalistic Psychedelic Use and Grandiose Narcissism: An Online Cross‐Sectional Study.” International Journal of Psychology 61, no. 4: e70237. 10.1002/ijop.70237.

Michał Bola and Magdalena Żemojtel‐Piotrowska are senior authors.

Data Availability Statement

The data that support the findings of this study are openly available in Naturalistic psychedelic use and grandiose narcissism at https://osf.io/yzmqg.

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Associated Data

This section collects any data citations, data availability statements, or supplementary materials included in this article.

Supplementary Materials

Table S1: Demographic information with division into groups.

IJOP-61-e70237-s001.docx (144.3KB, docx)

Data Availability Statement

The data that support the findings of this study are openly available in Naturalistic psychedelic use and grandiose narcissism at https://osf.io/yzmqg.

Articles from International Journal of Psychology are provided here courtesy of Wiley

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