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. 2026 Jul 1;17:1850228. doi: 10.3389/fimmu.2026.1850228

Figure 2.

Diagram illustrating interactions between thyroid cancer cells and immune cells, including regulatory T cells, macrophages, dendritic cells, natural killer cells, mast cells, and neutrophils, with arrows indicating activation, recruitment, and signaling molecules such as IL-8, MIP-1α, and VEGF-A.

Interactions between cancer cells and immune cells in thyroid cancer. Macrophages play a significant role in promoting tumor progression through the production of CXCL8 and IL-8, which recruit neutrophils that produce GM-CSF involved in tumor progression. VEGF-A recruits mast cells that produce histamine, CXCL1/GRO-α, and CXCL10/IP-10 to stimulate cancer cell proliferation. Furthermore, HGF and MIP-1a facilitate the recruitment of dendritic cells, while thyroid cancer cells produce COX-2 to recruit NK cells. T cells are categorized as CD8+ and CD4+ based on differentiation antigens. CD8+ cells elease granzyme B and perforin to aid thyroid cancer growth. Naïve CD4+ T cells transform into FoxP3+ Treg cells with pDCs, while thyroid cancer cells hinder anti-tumor immunity by attracting FoxP3+ T cells through IDO1. pDC, plasmacytoid dendritic cells.