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. 2026 Jun 17;16:22265. doi: 10.1038/s41598-026-55850-w

Table 3.

Subgroup analyses.

Subgroup Number of studies Number of participants Effect size (95% CI) p Q statistic
Exercise vs. control for skeletal muscle mass
Resistance exercise 21 1053 0.45 (0.22, 0.67) 0.0001

Q = 3.86

df = 3

p = 0.28

Multicomponent exercise 7 290 0.35 (0.11, 0.58) 0.004
Whole-body vibration 2 95 -0.01 (-0.42, 0.39) 0.94
Resistance exercise plus other interventionsa 11 622 0.38 (0.04, 0.71) 0.03
Exercise vs. control for muscle strength
Resistance exercise 21 951 0.96 (0.69, 1.22)  < 0.00001

Q = 20.46

df = 3

p = 0.0001

Multicomponent exercise 6 319 0.43 (0.20, 0.65) 0.0002
Whole-body vibration 2 119 -0.06 (-0.43, 0.31) 0.75
Resistance exercise plus other interventionsa 12 661 0.54 (0.22, 0.85) 0.001
Exercise vs. control for physical performance
Resistance exercise 13 424 0.60 (0.14, 1.06) 0.01

Q = 1.72

df = 3

p = 0.63

Multicomponent exercise 7 427 0.68(0.30, 1.07) 0.0005
Whole-body vibration 1 80 0.33 (-0.18, 0.84) 0.20
Resistance exercise plus other interventionsa 9 505 0.37 (-0.09, 0.83) 0.11
Exercise plus supplementation vs. supplementation alone for skeletal muscle mass
Resistance exercise 11 506 1.00 (0.49, 1.52) 0.0001

Q = 9.12

df = 2

p = 0.01

Multicomponent exercise 2 129 0.32 (-0.03, 0.67) 0.07
Resistance Exercise plus Aerobic 3 268 0.11 (-0.16, 0.38) 0.43
Exercise plus supplementation vs. supplementation alone for muscle strength
Resistance exercise 10 470 1.31 (0.69, 1.93)  < 0.0001

Q = 16.25

df = 2

p = 0.0003

Multicomponent exercise 2 129 0.43 (0.08, 0.78) 0.02
Resistance Exercise plus Aerobic 3 268 -0.21 (-0.63, 0.21) 0.33
Exercise plus supplementation vs. supplementation alone for physical performance
Resistance exercise 6 254 0.08 (-0.40, 0.57) 0.74

Q = 3.38

df = 2

p = 0.18

Multicomponent exercise 2 129 0.41 (0.06, 0.76) 0.02
Resistance Exercise plus Aerobic 2 169 -0.02 (-0.32, 0.28) 0.89
Exercise vs. supplementation for skeletal muscle mass
Resistance exercise 5 259 -0.04 (-0.41, 0.33) 0.84

Q = 22.61

df = 2

p < 0.0001

Multicomponent exercise 2 132 0.73 (0.37, 1.08)  < 0.0001
Resistance Exercise plus Aerobic 3 255 -0.32 (-0.57, -0.07) 0.01
Exercise vs. supplementation for muscle strength
Resistance exercise 5 259 -0.04 (-0.29, 0.20) 0.74

Q = 2.59

df = 2

p = 0.27

Multicomponent exercise 2 132 0.24 (-0.10, 0.59) 0.16
Resistance Exercise plus Aerobic 3 255 -0.09 (-0.34, 0.15) 0.46
Exercise vs. supplementation for physical performance
Resistance exercise 4 170 0.05 (-0.54, 0.65) 0.86

Q = 8.09

df = 2

p = 0.02

Multicomponent exercise 2 132 0.72 (0.37, 1.07)  < 0.0001
Resistance Exercise plus Aerobic 2 167 -0.17 (-0.77, 0.42) 0.56

a.Aerobic exercise, Tai Chi, and postural exercise.