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. 2026 May 19;18:162. doi: 10.1186/s13098-026-02183-3

Table 2.

Effects of GBE on T2D and MetS

Variables Trials, n I2 (%) P-het WMD (95% CI) P-effect
FBG
  Total 8 99.35% < 0.001 -13.88 [ -24.61, -3.15 ] 0.01
  Underlying disease
   T2D 6 99.49% < 0.001 -12.07 [ -24.16, 0.02 ] 0.05
   MetS 2 95.56% < 0.001 -19.59 [ -48.69, 9.51 ] 0.19
  Treatment type
   Mono therapy 2 78.69% < 0.001 -9.85 [ -18.64, -1.05 ] 0.03
   Combination therapy 6 99.63% < 0.001 -15.72 [ -30.47, -0.98 ] 0.04
  Dose of treatment
   < 120 mg/d 2 0 0.96 -0.12 [ -0.28, 0.04 ] 0.96
   ≥ 120 mg/d 6 98.41% < 0.001 -18.76 [ -31.24, -6.28 ] < 0.001
  Treatment duration
   ≤ 90 days 6 98.41% < 0.001 -18.76 [ -31.24, -6.28 ] < 0.001
   > 90 days 2 0 0.96 -0.12 [ -0.28, 0.04 ] 0.14
HbA1C
  Total 8 96.31% < 0.001 -0.17 [ -0.46, 0.11] 0.22
  Underlying disease
   T2D 6 94.25% < 0.001 -0.04 [ -0.32, 0.23 ] 0.77
   MetS 2 95.81% < 0.001 -0.55 [ -1.04, -0.06 ] 0.03
  Treatment type
   Mono therapy 2 37.89% 0.20 -0.37 [ -0.56, -0.18 ] < 0.001
   Combination therapy 6 97.34% < 0.001 -0.10 [ -0.46, 0.25 ] 0.56
  Dose of treatment
   < 120 mg/d 2 0.01% 0.62 0.17 [ 0.08, 0.27 ] < 0.001
   ≥ 120 mg/d 6 95.98% < 0.001 -0.29 [ -0.62, 0.03 ] 0.07
  Treatment duration
   ≤ 90 days 6 95.98% < 0.001 -0.29 [ -0.62, 0.03 ] 0.07
   > 90 days 2 0.01% 0.62 0.17 [ 0.08, 0.27 ] < 0.001
HOMA-IR
  Total 3 82.49% < 0.001 -3.64 [ -5.71, -1.56 ] < 0.001
  Underlying disease
   T2D 1 - - -2.60 [ -3.72, -1.48 ] < 0.001
   MetS 2 76.09% < 0.001 -4.20 [ -7.20, -1.20] 0.01
  Treatment type
   Mono therapy 1 - - -2.40 [ -5.12, 0.32 ] 0.08
   Combination therapy 2 91.73% < 0.001 -4.04 [ -6.89, -1.20 ] 0.01
Insulin
  Total 6 98.72% < 0.001 -2.80 [ -5.99, 0.39 ] 0.09
  Underlying disease
   T2D 4 97.38% < 0.001 -1.07 [ -3.25, 1.11 ] 0.34
   MetS 2 64.13% < 0.001 -6.54 [-12.95, -0.12 ] 0.05
  Treatment type
   Mono therapy 2 0% 0.77 -2.93 [ -7.78, 1.92 ] 0.24
   Combination therapy 4 99.44% < 0.001 -2.82 [ -7.04, 1.40 ] 0.19
HDL
  Total 7 96.48% < 0.001 2.13 [ -0.02, 4.28 ] 0.05
  Underlying disease
   T2D 5 94.43% < 0.001 1.50 [ -0.28, 3.27 ] 0.10
   MetS 2 94.64% < 0.001 3.46 [-4.11, 11.04 ] 0.37
  Treatment type
  Mono therapy 2 69.43% < 0.001 1.43 [ -2.00, 4.87 ] 0.41
  Combination therapy 5 98.00% < 0.001 -2.40 [ -0.40, 5.20 ] 0.09
  Dose of treatment
   < 120 mg/d 1 - - 3.80 [ 3.03, 4.57 ] < 0.001
   ≥ 120 mg/d 6 96.19% < 0.001 1.82 [ -0.65, 4.29 ] 0.15
  Treatment duration
   ≤ 90 days 6 96.19% < 0.001 1.82 [ -0.65, 4.29 ] 0.15
   > 90 days 1 - - 3.80 [ 3.03, 4.57 ] < 0.001
TC
  Total 7 95.76% < 0.001 -4.33 [ -12.93, 4.27 ] 0.32
  Underlying disease
   T2D 5 95.87% < 0.001 -0.69 [ -9.41, 8.04 ] 0.88
   MetS 2 81.61% < 0.001 -14.89 [ -31.43, 1.64 ] 0.08
  Treatment type
   Mono therapy 2 49.20% 0.16 -0.16 [ -9.82, 9.50 ] 0.97
   Combination therapy 5 97.64% < 0.001 -5.70 [ -17.25, 5.85 ] 0.33
  Dose of treatment
   < 120 mg/d 1 - - 7.80 [ 4.88, 10.72 ] < 0.001
   ≥ 120 mg/d 6 94.16% < 0.001 -6.51 [ -15.49, 2.48 ] 0.16
  Treatment duration
   ≤ 90 days 6 94.16% < 0.001 -6.51 [ -15.49, 2.48 ] 0.16
   > 90 days 1 - - 7.80 [ 4.88, 10.72 ] < 0.001
TG
  Total 7 98.19% < 0.001 -0.05 [ -15.37, 15.27 ] 0.99
  Underlying disease
   T2D 5 98.91% < 0.001 3.13 [ -16.41, 22.66 ] 0.75
   MetS 2 83.09% < 0.001 -9.29 [ -34.76, 16.18 ] 0.47
  Treatment type
   Mono therapy 2 0.00% 0.48 -0.54 [ -9.88, 8.79 ] 0.91
   Combination therapy 5 99.21% < 0.001 -1.24 [ -24.16, 21.69 ] 0.92
  Dose of treatment
   < 120 mg/d 1 - - 26.54 [ 17.77, 35.31 ] < 0.001
   ≥ 120 mg/d 6 97.83% < 0.001 -4.31 [ -19.01, 10.39 ] 0.57
  Treatment duration
   ≤ 90 days 6 97.83% < 0.001 -4.31 [ -19.01, 10.39 ] 0.57
   > 90 days 1 - - 26.54 [ 17.77, 35.31 ] < 0.001
LDL
  Total 7 97.35% < 0.001 -6.39 [ -15.72, 2.95 ] 0.18
  Underlying disease
   T2D 5 97.85% < 0.001 -3.43[ -14.39, 7.53 ] 0.54
   MetS 2 79.98% < 0.001 -14.85 [ -29.66, -0.04 ] 0.05
  Treatment type
   Mono therapy 2 0.0% 1.00 -6.00 [ -13.31, 1.31 ] 0.11
   Combination therapy 5 98.68% < 0.001 -6.39 [ -15.72, 2.95 ] 0.32
  Dose of treatment
   < 120 mg/d 1 - - 11.60 [ 9.66, 13.54 ] < 0.001
   ≥ 120 mg/d 6 94.08% < 0.001 -9.63 [ -18.01, -1.25 ] 0.02
  Treatment duration
   ≤ 90 days 1 - - 11.60 [ 9.66, 13.54 ] 0.02
   > 90 days 6 94.08% < 0.001 -9.63 [ -18.01, -1.25 ] < 0.001
CRP
  Total 5 98.51% < 0.001 -1.16 [ -1.94, -0.38 ] < 0.001
  Underlying disease
   T2D 3 99.17% < 0.001 0.76 [ -1.72, 021 ] 0.12
   MetS 2 0.00% 0.59 -1.85 [ -2.39, -1.30 ] < 0.001
  Treatment type
   Mono therapy 1 - - -2.00 [ -2.78, -1.22 ] < 0.001
   Combination therapy 4 98.78% < 0.001 -0.97 [ -1.81, -0.13 ] 0.02
IL6
  Total 3 90.04% < 0.001 -14.53 [ -25.00, -4.07 ] 0.01
  Underlying disease
   T2D 1 - - -22.40 [ -26.50, -18.30 ] < 0.001
   MetS 2 64.43% < 0.001 -9.43 [ -19.11, 0.25 ] 0.06
  Treatment type
   Mono therapy 1 - - -5.60 [ -10.21, -0.99 ] 0.02
   Combination therapy 2 17.69% < 0.001 -21.15 [ -26.22, -16.09 ] < 0.001
TNF-α
  Total 3 70.80% < 0.001 -58.30 [ -72.70, -43.91 ] < 0.001
  Underlying disease
   T2D 1 - - -71.50 [ -89.59, -53.41 ] < 0.001
   MetS 2 60.46% < 0.001 -52.74 [ -66.16, -39.31 ] < 0.001
  Treatment type
   Mono therapy 1 - - -61.70 [ -77.66, -45.74 ] < 0.001
   Combination therapy 2 82.88% < 0.001 -58.00 [ -81.34, -34.67 ] < 0.001
BUN
  Total 3 96.84% < 0.001 -3.24 [ -7.98, 1.50 ] 0.18
  Underlying disease
   T2D 1 - - -5.10 [ -6.59, -3.61 ] < 0.001
   MetS 2 98.11% < 0.001 -2.32 [ -9.89, 5.24 ] 0.55
  Treatment type
   Mono therapy 1 - - 1.52 [ 0.26, 2.78 ] 0.02
   Combination therapy 2 0.00% 0.33 -5.59 [ -6.70, -4.49 ] < 0.001
Cr
  Total 4 94.75% < 0.001 -0.12 [ -0.20, -0.04 ] < 0.001
  Underlying disease
   T2D 2 0.00% 0.98 -0.15 [ -0.17, -0.13] < 0.001
   MetS 2 95.8% < 0.001 -0.10 [ -0.23, 0.02] 0.11
  Treatment type
   Mono therapy 2 0.00% 0.96 -0.04 [ -0.06, -0.02 ] < 0.001
   Combination therapy 2 0.05% 0.46 -0.15 [ -0.17, -0.13 ] < 0.001
ALP
  Total 4 85.60% < 0.001 1.09 [ -4.03, 6.21] 0.68
  Underlying disease
   T2D 2 94.68% < 0.001 1.47 [ -11.07, 14.01 ] 0.82
   MetS 2 0.00% 0.7 0.63 [ -2.00, 3.27 ] 0.64
  Treatment type
   Mono therapy 2 63.10% 0.1 -2.37 [ -7.30, 2.57 ] 0.35
   Combination therapy 2 85.10% 0.01 4.43 [ -2.13, 11.00 ] 0.19
ALT
Total 4 0.00% 0.64 1.42 [ 0.66, 2.18 ] < 0.001
Underlying disease
T2D 2 0.00% 0.98 1.90 [ 0.66, 3.15 ] < 0.001
MetS 2 0.00% 0.38 1.14 [ 0.18, 2.10 ] 0.02
Treatment type
Mono therapy 2 0.00% 0.68 0.16 [ -2.46, 2.78 ] 0.91
Combination therapy 2 0.00% 0.47 1.54 [ 0.75, 2.33 ] < 0.001
AST
Total 4 0.00% 0.80 1.95 [ 1.07, 2.82 ] < 0.001
Underlying disease
T2D 2 64.05% 0.1 2.43 [ -1.96, 6.83 ] 0.28
MetS 2 0.00% 0.33 1.84 [ 0.91, 2.77 ] < 0.001
Treatment type
Mono therapy 2 0.00% 0.58 1.10 [ -0.32, 2.53 ] 0.13
Combination therapy 2 39.89% 0.20 2.82 [ 0.82, 4.81 ] 0.01
BMI
Total 6 93.63% < 0.001 -0.85 [ -1.53, -0.18 ] 0.01
Underlying disease
T2D 4 95.28% < 0.001 -0.71 [ -1.54, 0.12 ] 0.09
MetS 2 89.38% < 0.001 -1.15 [ -2.62, 0.32 ] 0.12
Treatment type
Mono therapy 2 0.00% 0.86 -0.36 [ -0.91, 0.18 ] 0.19
Combination therapy 4 96.77% < 0.001 -1.09 [ -2.05, -0.13 ] 0.03
VAI
Total 3 75.54% < 0.001 -48.09 [ -66.74, -29.44 ] < 0.001
Underlying disease
T2D 1 - - -44.80 [ -58.18, -31.42 ] < 0.001
MetS 2 78.84% < 0.001 -46.54 [ -82.92, -10.16 ] 0.01
Treatment type
Mono therapy 1 - - -24.40 [ -56.86, 8.06 ] 0.14
Combination therapy 2 75.60% < 0.001 -54.03[ -70.95, -37.12 ] < 0.001
WC
Total 5 99.25% < 0.001 -2.67 [ -4.97, -0.37 ] 0.02
Underlying disease
T2D 3 99.18% < 0.001 -1.06 [ -3.21, 1.09 ] 0.33
MetS 2 37.22% 0.21 -5.09 [ -6.07, -4.11 ] < 0.001
Treatment type
Mono therapy 1 - - -4.60 [ -5.68, -3.52 ] < 0.001
Combination therapy 4 99.45% < 0.001 -2.20 [ -4.89, 0.49 ] 0.11

*P‑het: p‑value for heterogeneity (Cochran’s Q test); P‑effect: p‑value for the overall effect estimate (test of WMD = 0)