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. 2026 Jul 8;17:1871218. doi: 10.3389/fphys.2026.1871218

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Copyright © 2026 Hu, Liu, Jiang, Wang, Qian, Ren and Kui.

This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

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Radar chart comparing Baling, Rotary Tillage, and Sowing across six factors: Mental Demand, Physical Demand, Temporal Demand, Performance, Effort, and Frustration. Baling scores highest in most categories, especially Mental Demand and Effort. Rotary Tillage shows higher Physical Demand but lower scores elsewhere. Sowing remains intermediate across factors. — Subjective multidimensional workload scores across six NASA-TLX subscales for the three agricultural tasks (baling, rotary tilling, and sowing).