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. 2026 Apr 11;56(7):1723–1747. doi: 10.1007/s40279-026-02414-7

Table 3.

Estimates of relative anaerobic and aerobic energy system contribution during single bouts of maximal high intensity exercise

Study Exercise Participants N Sex Age Duration (s) Anaerobic (%) Aerobic (%)
Sousa et al. (2017) [140] Run Active 12 M 21.0 10.0 90.3c (52.7, 37.6) 9.7
20.0 85.3c (56.0, 29.3) 14.7
30.0 79.4c (53.9, 25.5) 20.6
Bogdanis et al. (1998) [34] Cycle University students 8 M 26.0 10.0 87.0a 13.0
20.0 73.0a 27.0
Locatelli and Arsac (1995) [47] Run Runners 4 M 10.6 97.7b 2.3
11.8 96.8b 3.2
Duffield et al. (2004) [49] Run Club-, state-, and national-level track athletes 8 M 22.3 23.8 79.3b 20.7
23.8 71.6b 28.4
26.8 78.0b 22.0
26.8 66.8b 33.2
Bernardi et al. (2007) [146] Arm crank ergo Grinders and mastmen 6 M 28.0 27.0 85.0c (56.0, 29.0) 15.0
Smith and Hill (1991) [145] Cycle 6 M 30.0 84.0b (56.0, 28.0) 16.0
Beneke et al. (2002) [39] Cycle Rugby players 11 M 21.6 30.0 81.4c (50.3, 31.1) 18.6
Ozkaya et al. (2014) [64] Elliptical Mixed sport backgrounds 12 M 20.3 30.0 88.8c (45.0, 43.8) 11.2
30.0 84.3c (45.3, 39.1) 15.7
Micklewright et al. (2006) [144] Cycle Physically active 15 M 24.0 30.0 78.1c (40.9, 37.2) 21.9
30.0 77.5c (40.0, 37.5) 22.5
Leithauser et al. (2016) [88] Cycle No details 10 M 26.6 30.0 86.0c (59.0, 27.0) 14.0
30.0 87.0c (61.0, 26.0) 13.0
La Monica et al. (2020) [41] Cycle Recreationally active 11 M 22.8 30.0 90.3c (46.9, 43.4) 9.7
30.0 89.9c (45.1, 44.8) 10.1
30.0 90.2c (46.8, 43.4) 9.8
30.0 89.8c (47.6, 42.3) 10.2
30.0 89.2c (46.1, 43.1) 10.8
Doria et al. (2020) [71] Cycle Mountain climbers 7 M 39.4 30.0 80.1c (48.3, 31.8) 19.9
30.0 81.7c (43.1, 38.6) 18.3
Lovell et al. (2013) [147] Arm crank ergo Physically active 14 M 24.0 30.0 88.6c (60.3, 28.3) 11.4
Franchini et al. (2016) [84] Arm crank ergo Well trained 14 M 21.0 30.0 79.0c (46.0, 33.0) 21.0
Julio et al. (2019) [85] Cycle State or national level 11 M 18.0 30.0 77.0c (45.0, 32.0) 23.0
30.0 79.0c (50.0, 29.0) 21.0
Figueiredo et al. (2011) [83] Swim (pool) International-level swimmers 10 M 21.6 32.2 55.4b (14.1, 41.3) 44.6
141.3 34.1b (13.6, 20.4) 65.9
Bottollier et al. (2020) [141] Ski Alpine ski racers 8 Mixed 18.2 43.9 65.7b (36.3, 29.4) 34.3
52.9 60.1b (34.6, 25.5) 39.9
53.2 56.1b (26.5, 29.6) 43.9
78.3 51.5b (29.9, 21.6) 48.5
Lacour et al. (1990) [46] Run Top-level runners 17 Mixed 25.4 47.5 71.8b 28.2
108.4 50.3b 49.7
Hill (1999) [45] Run Runners 6 M 49.3 63.0b 37.0
61.2 62.0b 38.0
120.2 39.0b 61.0
145.7 33.0b 67.0
245.8 20.0b 80.0
308.5 17.0b 83.0
Wittekind and Beneke (2011) [66] Cycle Cyclists or triathletes 11 M 31.0 60.0 63.0c (38.0, 25.0) 37.0
60.0 62.0c (36.0, 27.0) 38.0
60.0 60.0c (34.0, 26.0) 40.0
Bertuzzi et al. (2007) [81] Climb Climbers 6 20.1 73.8 58.4c (8.4, 50.1) 41.6
80.8 51.5c (12.3, 39.3) 48.5
82.3 56.1c (13.8, 42.5) 43.9
83.9 57.9c (16.4, 41.5) 42.1
Zamparo et al. (2006) [87] Kayak (field) Italian national whitewater team 8 24.8 85.7 54.8b ((29.9, 24.9) 45.2
88.1 53.0b (33.9, 19.0) 47.0
de Poli et al. (2016) [69] Run Recreational 18 M 29.0 118.8 43.6c (25.0, 18.6) 56.4
Sousa et al. (2014) [86] Swim (pool) Swimmers 12 M 18.2 122.6 41.0b (20.0, 21.0) 59.0
194.2 26.0b (12.0, 14.0) 74.0
344.1 17.0b (7.0, 10.0) 83.0
Duffield et al. (2005) [51] Run Club- to national-level athletes 9 M 19.8 126.0 36.6b 63.4
126.0 39.7b 60.3
151.5 31.4b 68.6
151.5 29.9b 70.1
de Poli et al. (2019) [70] Run Recreationally active 14 M 24.0 160.8 35.0c (19.9, 15.1) 65.0
Brisola et al. (2015) [40] Run Healthy and moderately active men 15 M 23.4 163.0 33.4c (19.5, 14.2) 66.6
Ferreira et al. (2015) [143] Swim (pool) Swimmers 14 M 35.6 171.2 23.9b (12.0, 11.9) 76.1
174.8 26.0b (13.1, 12.8) 74.0
177.5 28.4b (14.8, 13.6) 71.6
193.4 21.6b (9.3, 12.3) 78.4
197.4 20.6b (8.0, 12.7) 79.4
205.2 23.1b (9.9, 13.2) 76.9
Correia et al. (2019) [142] Swim (pool) Swimmers 14 Mixed 23.0 171.7 12.2b (6.0, 6.2) 87.8
Ferreira et al. (2016) [82] Swim (pool) Participated in national swimming events 11 F 34.7 193.4 21.6b (9.3, 12.3) 78.4
197.4 20.6b (8.0, 12.7) 79.4
205.2 22.3b (9.6, 12.8) 77.7
Laffite et al. (2004) [139] Swim (pool) Elite 7 M 19.1 255.8 18.9b 81.1
Duffield et al. (2005) [50] Run Trained 10 M 25.0 263.0 19.0b 81.0
263.0 23.0b 77.0
316.7 18.0b 82.0
316.7 14.0b 86.0
de Campos Mello et al. (2009) [63] Row (ergo with slide) Competitive rowers 8 M 23.8 398.0 16.0c (7.0, 9.0) 84.0
402.0 16.0c (7.0, 9.0) 84.0
515.0 13.0c (6.0, 7.0) 87.0

Assessment method: mixed methods (n = 33 studies)

Method used to calculate adenosine triphosphate and phosphocreatine (ATP–PCr) energy release and contribution: aMuscle measures; bMuscle estimates; cFast-component of post exercise oxygen consumption