Table 1. Practical applicability of various adsorbent materials, highlighting performance metrics such as the tested matrix, number of effective regeneration cycles, specific system type used, and notable operational or technical limitations hindering industrial implementation.

Adsorbent type	Matrix tested	Regeneration cycles	System type	Key limitation	Ref.
Activated carbon (bio-based)	Real wastewater	3–5 cycles	Batch	Reduced efficiency due to NOM	99
Chitosan-based adsorbents	Synthetic + real water	4–6 cycles	Batch	Structural instability after reuse	100
Agricultural waste-derived adsorbents	Wastewater	2–4 cycles	Batch	Limited durability	101
Graphene oxide composites	Synthetic solutions	3–5 cycles	Batch	High cost, scalability issues	105
Carbon nanotubes	Synthetic water	3–4 cycles	Batch	Aggregation, regeneration loss	102
Biochar-based adsorbents	Real wastewater	5–10 cycles	Batch/column (limited)	Fouling, variable performance	104
Fixed-bed systems (various adsorbents)	Wastewater	Continuous	Column	Breakthrough limitations	103
Nanocomposites (metal oxide-based)	Synthetic + limited real samples	3–6 cycles	Mostly batch	Scale-up challenges	106