Table 4. Summary of adsorption performance of various adsorbents for the removal of mycotoxins from different matrices, including removal efficiency, isotherm and kinetic models, maximum adsorption capacity (qmax), contact time, and reusabilitya.
| Adsorbate | Matrix | Removal efficiency (%) | Isotherms/kinetics | Model fitting method | R 2 (isotherm model) | Reusability | q max (mg g−1) | Contact time (min) | Ref. |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Bentonite/humic acid/beta-glucan-mannan composite (70 : 10 : 20) | Simulated gastrointestinal fluid | 98.07% | Pseudo-second-order (chemisorption) | Linear | Not specified | Not specified | 0.332 | 360 | 45 |
| LS-Fe3O4@UiO-66 | Aqueous solution of AFB1 | ∼90% | Freundlich/pseudo-second-order | Linear | 0.976 | Excellent; >80% efficiency after 3 cycles | Not specified for the composite (focus was on overall removal) | 180 | 47 |
| MGO (magnetic graphene oxide) | Contaminated oils (rice, bran oil) | 98.41% | Freundlich/pseudo-second-order | Linear | 0.9910 | Excellent | 1.68 | 60 | 79 |
| Stearyl trimethyl ammonium bromide modified nano-montmorillonite (NMMT-STAB) | Dairy cow rumen fluid | Not specified | Freundlich/pseudo-second-order | Linear | 0.95 | Not specified | 9.23 | 15 | 80 |
| C-Cu-BTC MOF-600 | Vegetable oils (peanut, corn) | >90% | Langmuir/pseudo-second-order | Non-linear | — | Not specified | 16.92 | 30 | 94 |
| OP-bentonite (orange peel extract modified bentonite) | Buffered solutions and simulated gastrointestinal fluids | ∼95% | Langmuir/pseudo-second-order | Linear | 0.992 | Not specified | 166.00 | 120 | 107 |
| Metformin-chitosan/silica-cobalt ferrite nanospheres (Mt-CS/CFS NSs) | Aqueous solution & cow's milk | >91% | Freundlich/pseudo-second-order | Linear | 0.993 | Excellent (∼88% efficiency after 7 cycles) | 3.89 | 80 | 112 |
| Fe/N-PC (derived from Fe-doped ZIF-8) | Aqueous solution of AFB1 (also tested in tofu wastewater) | 99.88% | Langmuir/pseudo-second-order (adsorption); PMS-activated catalytic oxidation | Linear | 0.999 | Good; >75% efficiency after 3 cycles | 202.80 | 30 | 157 |
| Walnut shell nano-biosorbent (WSN) | Aqueous solution of AFB1 | 93.7% | Langmuir/pseudo-second-order | Linear | 0.9950 | Excellent; <5% drop in removal after 5 cycles | 176.30 | 45 | 158 |
| Sodium alginate incorporated attapulgite (SA-ATP) | Aromatic peanut oil | 98.37% | Langmuir/pseudo-second-order | Linear | 0.9925 | Not specified | 0.0406 | 60 | 159 |
| Sugarcane bagasse fly ash (BFA) | Simulated gastrointestinal fluid (buffer solutions) | ∼91% | Langmuir/pseudo-second-order | Non-linear | — | Not specified | 115.00 | 120 | 160 |
| Chitosan/palygorskite (C-A1) | Simulated gastrointestinal fluid (PBS buffer) | ∼95.5% | Linear isotherm model/pseudo-second-order | Linear | 0.982 | Stable with minimal desorption | 1.89 | 20 | 161 |
| HKR-90 (hexadecyltrimethylammonium bromide modified kaolinite) | Phosphate buffer solution conditions | ∼97% | Langmuir/Freundlich/sips | Non-linear | — | Not specified | 8.90 | 30 | 162 |
All adsorption capacities are reported in mg g−1, and concentrations are expressed in mg L−1. Where necessary, units have been converted for consistency. ‘—’ indicates data not reported in the original study or R2 values omitted for non-linear entries to ensure comparability. Parameter estimation in the majority of cited literature is based on linear transformations; however, modern standards advocate for nonlinear fitting due to its higher reliability. As a comprehensive review, our primary goal is to compile and present the existing body of data as originally reported in the literature. To maintain data integrity while avoiding the mathematical inconsistency of comparing coefficients with different Y-axes, R2 values are listed only for linear isotherm studies. All cross-methodological evaluations of adsorbent performance are strictly based on absolute adsorption capacities. Values represent reported means; standard deviations (±) are omitted to maintain table uniformity across the vast range of cited literature where such data was largely unavailable.